ABOUT
THE ESSENCE
OF PHYSICAL
MATTER

BIZHOV VASILII

28.11.2023

Research Article

In this book, a concept is proposed, in which all physical interactions have one common fundamental nature, and the Universe has a single and limitless source that determines how it evolves. With this, a wide range of concrete physical phenomena is considered, revealing their coherence and consistency in the light of the proposed concept.

The author has paid much attention so as to make the material understandable to all those interested in the evolutionary fundamentals of physical existence.

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BIZHOV VASILII

ABOUT THE ESSENCE OF PHYSICAL MATTER — Moscow: Publishing house
"Pero", 2024. – 88 p.

Сover
1. Introduction
2. Physical interactions: their single cause and essence
3. Physical forms
4. Stability of interaction of forms
5. Interactions of forms at atomic levels
6. Intra-nuclear interactions
7. Integration of atoms into molecules
8. Once again: about gravity, space density, and origin of matter
- 8.1 Dynamics of space density
- 8.2 Interaction and development of physical forms
9. Particles as space-time
10. Physical forms and photons
11. Evolution of material Universe
12. Non-material part of the Universe

1. Introduction

Physics has not solved, as yet, its principal problem which is the unification of all types of physical interactions. In a wider context, physics has not yet come to an understanding of what essentially is matter. Basically, this situation is because no is unifying idea has been worked out.

The present publication becomes an attempt to formulate a unifying concept to serve a basis for understanding the structure of matter and the evolution of the Universe, to underlie all physical interactions. This is an attempt to realize the common physical meaning of the processes occurring in the physical world.

This concept is presented here as a group of several connected hypotheses that are described in most general terms and contain a vital unifying potential. And these hypotheses are well understandable.

The present work does not undermine the available physical knowledge, but it gives another perspective of what is known in physics. This is not a scientific paper. It provides a simple description with a few figures. Bu, in the author’s view this description is new, broad and consistent, so much as to become interesting to all those looking for the meaning of what is happening in the Universe.

2. Physical interactions: their single cause and essence.

If we believe that all types of physical interactions can be unified, then we have to admit that all these interactions have their common basic origin, their common cause, and their common evolutional law, or idea.

For later, it is necessary to postulate this idea. Let us call this idea, or the basic law of evolution: Arrow. It is difficult to give this idea any brief and rather concrete definition, because there are many ways of how this general law is being manifested. Anyway, essentially –

Arrow is the most fundamental physical principle ensuring transformation of differences and dynamics to unification and rest.

At the initial stage of our presentation, we refer the differences and the dynamics to the levels of gravity.

Arrow as the most fundamental physical principle in Nature determines the development and the relative force of all physical interactions, the direction of evolution of the Universe in general. To understand how this principle works, we need to specify it by way of excerpting several connected ideas from it. The present paper formulates and presents these ideas. The basic idea is:

All physical interactions are manifestations of only one type of interactions, which at this stage of presentation can be called gravitational interaction.

The force of interaction of material objects is given by the known gravity law at the macroscopic scale only. At the level of elementary objects, atoms, molecules, this force is determined by the character of the wave dynamics of gravitational manifestations.

In other words, it is assumed that at the microscopic level these fields can be in any active dynamical state, and create, among other things, very intense (resonance) differences in the levels, and thus create extremely strong (relative to the masses) forces of interaction.

This brings us to the idea of what are the elementary and other particles in the microcosm: Particles in the microcosm are wave gravity objects.

Atoms, molecules and their containing bodies are superpositions of these wave objects.

Let us consider the static gravity fields of two point objects of a certain non-zero mass (Fig. 1). Then consider the fields of these objects (their form) that are presented as intense pulsations, or peaks, at some moment of time (Fig. 1), and now consider these pulsations at a short distance (Fig. 1). Here the term “pulsation” denotes a resonance phenomenon.

Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3

In accordance with the action of Arrow that removes differences, mutual gravitation occurs between the objects (Fig. 4).

The author does not intend, and is unable, to determine the exact form of the law of this mutual gravitation. For the purposes of this work, it is sufficient to characterize the following: what determines the strength of this mutual gravitation and what is the structure of this dependence.

This force, all other things being equivalent, depends on the “degree of difference” of the gravitational fields of the objects (on the degree of the “curvature of space between the objects”). In a rough approximation, this degree of difference is determined by the multiplication of gravity levels A1 and A2 relative to the level of their equality, related to the distance between the centers of the objects, R, to a certain power n > 2.

The author does not insist on such a representation, which is very simplified and is mostly addressed to the situations when the distances between the objects are smaller than their spatial sizes. As the distance between the objects is tending to zero, the dependence outlined above also becomes inadequate in describing the process of mutual gravitation, thus requiring a modification.

What is important for this work is that no arbitrarily large degree of difference (“curvature of space”) is prohibited, as well as, therefore, no arbitrarily strong force (relative to masses) of interaction of the objects (pulsations) at some point in time. In the example of interaction between two objects, shown in Fig.4, the force of interaction is determined to a much greater extent by the form of pulsations, rather than by the mass of objects. The more intense the pulsation, the higher the force of interaction, all other things being equivalent.

By intensity, the author understands here a sharp increase in the level of gravity to high values when approaching the center of the object. Spatially, this is a very small area of very high gravity. Further, for the simplicity of textual penetration, the author will use this term “intensity” in the above sense. However, in some cases, we will use, as a synonym, the term “pronounced” instead of the term “intense”.

Thus, the force of mutual gravitation of the objects represented as pulsations is determined, to the greatest extent, by the form of these pulsations.

Particularly important is the character of the changes of this force when the objects are considerably approaching each other. If elementary objects in a pair are the wave-resonance processes, then their mutual positions at any moment can be characterized by a very high difference between the pulsation levels and, with that, by a very small separation between them. And this can determine a very strong (relative to the masses of particles) force of interaction. Fig. 4 shows, as well, the character of the supposed dependence of the force of interaction of two wave objects on their separating distance.

Fig. 4

This dependence demonstrates the following:

The force of interaction does not tend to infinity when the separation of the mass centers goes to zero. At sufficiently small separations, it starts radically dropping and reaches zero when the objects get fully overlaid. And at an attempt to separate them, or to make them “go through each other” (which is the same), the force of interaction re-appears and it jumps high, as if counteracting to disintegration. As it will be shown, this type of dependence is basic for the stability of matter.

Gravitational interactions of macroscopic material bodies appear to be relatively small, because their gravity fields are superpositions of many fields produced by elementary objects constituting a material body. And such summarized fields are characterized by a summarized quadratic drop. In other words, the “level of difference” of the gravity fields of material bodies is small compared to the masses of these bodies.

Interactions other than gravitational are relatively stronger, thus appearing to be of a different origin. Yet they are gravitational as well, and their strength is due to the fact that they are produced by the dynamical interaction of intense pulsations of gravity fields.

We see therefore that in an approach when objects of the microcosm (e.g. elementary particles) are represented as gravitational pulsations, the force of interaction is basically determined by the character (magnitude) of these pulsations.

Principal here (but uncomfortable mentally) is the concept of mass as gravity field pulsation in the case when the so called matter is absent. Where then gravity fields arise from?

We will speak below about what is the embodiment of mass and about what are the objects of the microcosm and how they interact.

3. Physical forms.

To continue, it is necessary to postulate perhaps the most important idea underlying the essence of matter:

Physical matter exists in physical forms and their superpositions having different levels of scale and complexity.

Any thing that objectively exists and can be determined and measured is an object. Any object has its boundaries, and it is defined by these boundaries. They define the form of an object.

In other words, everything existing has its form.

The idea of the Universe as an ensemble of interactions of physical forms allows one an alternate view of physical matter and processes, which makes it possible to combine all interactions, of all types, into one unifying interaction of forms.

Now it is necessary to specify the notion of a form.

A physical form is a closed surface of equal and maximum (in a certain vicinity) gravity.

Here we speak about a certain space which is enclosed not by an arbitrary surface of equal gravity, any one of infinitely many surfaces, but by the surface of maximum gravity, in some vicinity of space at some moment of time. We can say that a form is a gravitationally degenerate – “compacted” – envelope. We can imagine this as a film of markedly enhanced gravity. Such an intensity of the form’s boundary (intensity of the gravity level) is a manifestation of wave dynamics, a specific stable resonance process. In what follows below, the wave dynamics of a form (the form’s boundaries) will be understood as traveling waves, with the humps and troughs on its “surface”. That is, the gravitationally expressed envelope (boundary) of a form is not static, it represents traveling waves with different parameters.

Matter is made of the objects of microcosm. They all are forms of different degrees of magnitude and complexity. At this stage of exposition, the reader is welcome to just admit this.

In the following, the terms “form”, “form’s boundary” and “wave envelope” can be used as synonyms.

3.1 Forms, space, and mass.

Now it is necessary to postulate one more principal definition:

Space itself possesses the property of mass. Space can have different “density”, or metrics.

In particular, a quantum object can be represented as a stable space-density oscillation, as the dynamics of the boundary of its form.

Apparently, it is difficult to accept this.

But as long as one tries to combine what is not combined in the framework of existing concepts, it is worth trying to change them, the more so as this is not prohibited by anything.

Therefore, a form is a dynamical space structure, which is characterized by its mass, and a form’s boundary is a closed and intense space condensation, which is a resonance manifestation.

A form is an entity of the space-density dynamics within certain boundaries. A form has a mass and possesses the property of an object.

Here the following point is important:

Space and mass have their physical meaning only when they are enclosed in some form. Then only they are an objective reality. Or, more precisely: this in fact is the only objective reality.

That is, if something exists within certain boundaries, then this existence makes this “something” definite, or measurable, and in this case only one can speak about an object.

No less important is that a reference system can be determined in space in connection to objects only. Therefore, the physical meaning can be established only in the presence of objects, i.e. in the presence of forms.

Any particle of the microcosm that has a mass is a dynamical form, and matter of any type consists of the multitude of forms and represents the dynamical superposition of these forms.

3.2 Dynamics of forms of the microcosm.

Everything which exists is in motion, and is thus changing. Forms also exist only dynamically. And this dynamics has a wave (harmonic), periodic character.

The dynamics of forms is to be understood as wave dynamics of their boundaries.

Speaking of periodicity, we mean that a form can have not only one, but a periodical number of mutually dependent boundaries, and each following boundary contains “within itself” the previous boundary, thus losing its intensity (amplitude and contrast) in accordance with some rule. In the following, the form’s boundaries can be called as wave envelopes.

We cannot know the concrete reality of what occurs in the microcosm. We only can built models of this. Everything to be presented below is considered within the simplest models. The best model is a model which is the most general and provides more physical sense.

Fig. 5 shows schematically a section of a free form in a general case, demonstrating the periodical and damped character of the form’s boundary.

Fig. 5

This is the fundamental property of the distribution of the boundaries of forms. With the “size” increasing – considering a “more outside” boundary, which is a part of a damped periodic process – the intensity of this boundary decreases, thus leading to a relative reduction of the force of interaction of these particles. As well, the distance to each subsequent boundary is increasing.

When considering “free” elementary particles, each of the boundaries must be almost spherical; it is a quasi-sphere.

The main feature of the forms is the presence of wave pulsations, or running waves, on their “surfaces” (boundaries).

This can be imagined as a “spiny ball” in the rolling and oscillatory wave dynamics. Two main types of wave processes at the boundaries of forms are the following:

Rotation as for wave pulsations – humps and troughs – “running along the boundaries”.

Swing as for circular motions of wave pulsations (humps and troughs) within some solid angle.

Due to such dynamical properties of the form’s boundary, the form as an entity gains the ability to turn around the other form, or to swing along it.

The rolling of a form is easy to imagine. But what is the phenomenon of swinging needs an explanation. It is a circular rolling of one form over another form within a certain solid angle.

Swing is a combination of aspects of revolution and oscillation within a solid angle. One can term it a circular oscillation. To better imagine this, let us take two balls and roll or “shake” them over each other within some range.

Although the above refers to the dynamics of pulsations on the surface of a form, we can readily relate it to the dynamics of the entire form. Thus in the following we will speak of the entire forms as those rolling and swinging. Yet one must keep in mind that this is not rotation and swing in the usual sense.

Fig. 6

It will be shown below that, depending on the type of dynamics, the forms are manifested differently in their interactions.

Thus, any non-zero mass particle in the microcosm is a gravity (space) form with the wave-dynamical pattern on its “surface”.

Such a particle changes with time (oscillates). On the other hand, at any given moment it differs for different space areas considered (the location of the part of its boundary is different in different areas). That is, a microcosm particle is in an indefinite state.

A macroscopic material body does not have any definite periodical boundaries in the scope of our perception. It has only its visible (“averaged”) shape, as long as it is a complex superposition of a multitude of relatively small forms.

3.3 Interaction of boundaries, quantization, superposition of forms.

Any physical interaction is essentially the interaction of forms.

Interaction of forms is interaction of their boundaries.

Fig. 7 shows: a fragment of the location of the boundaries of two forms at a certain moment of time; their corresponding levels of gravity (space density); the resulting interaction of these forms.

Fig. 7

Interaction of the boundaries (envelopes) is to be considered in the same way as interaction of two idealized objects-pulsations, which is shown in Fig. 4. Between the boundaries, the same action of Arrow occurs. The regions of the interacting boundaries (as “opposite” pulsations) undergo mutual gravitation until they fully merge and gravity forces vanish. In the situation of full merging (balance), the boundaries offer the growing resistance to attempts to going “through each other” or to breaking apart, which serves the cause for the stability of this interaction. At this moment of time, no forces act on the interacting parts. These parts are merging.

After that, these pulsations are diminishing and then they totally “disappear”, but at the same time a new similar interaction is occuring in the “neighboring region”. This is equivalent to the picture when the forms “turn” to a certain angle relative to each other, which reminds the interaction of a kind of pinion. One can see that the similarity principle is widely represented in the real world.

As already mentioned, the intensity (contrast) of the form’s boundary is a consequence of its wave origin. This is a spatial resonance process. Its manifestation can be extremely strong as well. The force of interaction of the form’s boundaries can also be extremely strong relative to the participating masses, having yet the same gravitation origin.

Thus why the resonance processes as the form’s boundaries are possible? They are possible because all elementary forms have a unique common source. This is why all the occurring elementary forms are related as the wave processes. It can be assumed that their spectrum contains “some terms of one and the same harmonic series”. Growing up or making superpositions, the resulting forms continue to comprise the “inheritable” parts of their common spectrum.

This opens the possibility for a highly consistent wave interaction of the boundaries of different forms in the microcosm. Such an interaction creates superpositions coming as new, more outside but as well stable and periodical, combinations of wave dynamics, which are the boundaries of new, more complex forms.

The existence of consistent boundary oscillations and the quantization phenomenon are directly interconnected.

In the general context, a quantization phenomenon is a reaction of a certain initial wave system to the varying frames of space.

It means the possibility for the stable existence of this wave (and its derivatives) in some certain frames of space (i.e. in forms).

It might seem that the presence of two extreme pulsations close to each other after their merging would stop movement. However everything is dynamic and, with that, the observable interactions are stable.

Movement does not stop and interactions remain stable, because the boundaries of forms are in ongoing and consistent wave dynamics of mutual rotations and oscillations (swings).

While as yet not touching the issue of the origin of a unified source (to be be discussed below), we can say that the validity of the assumption about its presence is supported by the evidence that elementary particles of any type prove identical and that their interactions are standard within the observed Universe.

The initial harmonic coupling leads to periodical manifestations of definite properties inherent to forms of different generations, different size, complexity and intensity. This is demonstrated, for example, by the Table of chemical elements and by the entire spectrum of chemical reactions that are known.

The interaction of the boundaries of forms holds together the particles inside an atomic nucleus, holds together the electrons and nuclei, the atoms in a molecule, the molecules in their compounds. This force is basic for the substance to exist in general and for all its properties that we perceive and measure. This force in the infinite number of its combinations, is the creator of the complete physical Universe.

The superposition of several elementary forms – being a new, larger-scale form – has a longer and less intense periodical damped series of boundaries (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8

So the superposed forms of a yet larger volume and with less intense boundaries occur, for example, in the following sequence: quark-proton, neutron-nucleus-atom-molecule, etc. The superposed (compound) forms always have less intense boundaries than their constituent forms, and therefore their interaction force gets relatively weaker and longer-range.

For instance, the force of proton-neutron interactions is stronger than that between electrons and nuclei, and this latter is stronger than the force of interatomic action in a molecule. As it was stated above, the forms possess a certain series of intensity-decreasing boundaries (harmonics). This determines the long-range character of their coupling, because the “initial” interaction of forms can arise between any external boundaries (within some limited degree of damping) under relevant conditions. One can say that if the forms are free from interaction, they behave as fields.

The occurrence of interaction of one form with another along one of the boundaries (e.g. when making measurements) has its consequences, which are a) a change in the parameters of the entire wave system under study, b) a change of the parameters in the dynamics of the full series of the boundaries of form, right up to the disappearance (collapse) of most of them, and c) a concentration of energy towards one of the interacting boundaries. Such an interaction can also lead to reducing the “size” of the form, and even so considerably as to be treated as a “field-to-particle collapse”.

We can, therefore, make one more conclusion about the boundaries of the forms: The representation of matter as complex dynamics of space density and as interaction of boundaries is unifying field manifestations and particle manifestations.

4. Stability of interaction of forms.

The stability of interaction of the boundaries of forms is its principal feature. At an attempt to disconnect the boundaries, mutual attraction is increasing initially (Fig. 4). That is, the form’s boundaries are resisting both their separation and interpenetration. At the quantum level, this expresses the prohibition for the forms to being located in one place, and to their merging into a point. Such a ban is a consequence of the existence of volume in a form.

At the microscopic level, this stability determines the ability of matter to resist rupture, compression, to resist its elastic and other mechanical properties. It determines the preservation by material bodies of their outlines.

This stability leads to the need for energy costs for decomposing – into fragments – objects, molecules, and atomic nuclei.

The ability of the forms of microcosm to produce compounds of varying degrees of stability (consistency) determines not only mechanical, but also all other existing properties of matter.

The properties of matter are determined by the property of forms to concentrate the energy of interaction in a general resonance process and to resist the changes in the space conditions of such a process.

Arrow – is the unification and the tendency to the state of rest. Obeying the action of Arrow, the forms are tending to unite, i.e. to come to a more stable, more compact and less dynamic interaction. The initial “consistency” of elementary forms determines periodic manifestations of various properties of increasingly large superpositions of forms. This process of unification, enlargement and compactification of forms can be treated as the synthesis of matter.

Because Arrow’s action is directing to maximum compactness, the synthesis of matter is always accompanied by the process of transformation of forms and liberation from their disharmonious, “superfluous” fragments via emission of wave energy and of some sorts of particles having mass.

The forms that prevent the most compact synthesis are transformed under the “pressure” of the surrounding forms: collapses (implosions) and subsequent emissions – as photons – of certain outer boundaries is taking place. Things go this way, for example, in the course of the synthesis of elements and its accompanying emission process, or when a substance is being heated or is due to mechanical pressure. Disharmonious “superfluous” fragments also get liberated when the excessively complex and therefore unstable forms are decaying thanks to natural radioactivity. Also, the process of unification and compactification of forms can be associated with the fact that the spectrum of a general oscillatory system is becoming simpler.

5. Interactions of forms at atomic levels.

Now it is getting possible to represent the structure of matter as modeled at the quantum level. Understandably, the models below are rather primitive and mechanistic. Their objective is to demonstrate only the principle of interaction at the quantum level. These models are important because they contain a unifying idea of the structure of matter:

– Matter consists of the forms that are in consistent interaction with each other by means of mutual circular oscillations and mutual rotations.

These models can be represented. They do not require any entities other than space and time.

5.1 Electron-nucleus interactions.

The form of electron can be conventionally represented as a quasi-sphere with antinodes (pulsations) of the wave process (Fig. 9). Here and on, by pulsations we mean pulsations of the boundaries of forms. These pulsations “run along a sphere” in such a way that we can attest this as rotation of the forms in some plane. In the arguments of interaction, this is equivalent to the view of the forms rotating themselves. In other words, we can assume that electrons are rotating.

Fig. 9

It is important to note that there as well may be other, different ideas regarding the dynamics of the boundary of an electron form and of some other forms in the microcosm. This dynamics can be represented, for example, as spiral humps spreading from pole to pole on the surface of a sphere. Yet even so, the interactions that we describe remain, as such, essentially the same. However, for some reasons, it is still more convenient for us to consider a form as a sphere “charged” with the pulsation dynamics. The quasi-sphericity of such a form is to be preferred to other options, as long as Arrow’s action is underlying the common tendency towards integrity (compactness).

Fig. 10 represents the form of an atomic nucleus. That is a superposition of the dynamics of the forms of the particles inside it. This is seen to also be a quasi-sphere with “running antinodes” of the wave process – or, more precisely, this is one of the forms. The form of a nucleus, like any other form of the microcosm, has a number of boundaries of decreasing intensity, as shown in Fig. 5. Each such boundary of a nucleus (its wave envelope) can be considered as one of the energy levels of its interaction with electrons.

Fig. 10

Fig. 11 represents the interaction of the boundary of the form of a nucleus (its wave envelope) with the boundary of the form of an electron at some moment of time. This interaction, like any interaction of the forms in general, can exist only dynamically, as being the interaction of wave processes. This is possible in the case of mutual counter rotation. And this accounts for not only interaction, but also for the variants of charges of different signs (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11

In accordance with Arrow’s action, the force of mutual attraction of an electron and a nucleus arises, being the interaction between the closest sections of their boundaries (Fig. 7). This force is quite large for the participating masses, compared to the force of gravitational interaction, which fact is due to relatively high levels of gravity within the boundaries, and to high intensities and sharpness of the boundaries.

We can also say as follows: during the interaction of the boundaries of microcosmic forms, there occurs a much more active space warping than it typically is for the gravitational interaction of macroscopic objects (which have no pronounced, resonant boundaries). And this space warping and its resulting space curvature are caused not so much by the magnitude of masses as by the active dynamics of the gravitational field in the boundary zone. Strong forces of interaction between electrons and nuclei (as related to their masses) create an illusion of some special nature of this type of interaction.

5.2 Interaction of electrons and nuclei as electric charges.

As it was already mentioned, the fundamental aspect of the interaction of the forms of an electron and a nucleus is their mutual rotation. Moreover, their rotations are made in “opposite directions”, in their common frame of reference.

Thus we can say that an electron is “rolling” along the wave envelope of its attracting nucleus, and this nucleus is rolling “towards it”. That is, one form rolls over another, and “the antinodes of one form fall exactly between the antinodes of another form”. This high degree of coordination of frequencies and phases of wave processes at the boundaries of forms is the essence of stable interactions of forms in general and of the opposite-sign charges, in particular.

Mutual attraction of the different-sign charges expresses a tendency to combine (coordinate) the wave processes; it is a coordinated counter-rotation of forms.

Accordingly, same-sign charges are forms rotating in one direction in a certain plane. Such forms are resisting their convergence, because the latter requires the penetration of one form into another, or, equivalently, the passage of one border through another (Fig. 12).

The long-range character of the interaction of electric charges, as already mentioned, is due to the fact that more than one, a whole series of damped boundaries is present in the forms.

The phenomenon of attraction and repulsion of electric charges is a manifestation of the mutual rotation of forms.

What is important here is that such an interaction is physically imaginable. Any other geometrical representation of the interaction of electric charges within the framework of the concept of physical forms is impossible.

As it was mentioned, some other variants of models of mutual rotation of forms cannot be excluded.

Fig. 12

The model presented conceptually combines our understanding of the phenomenon of Newton’s and Coulomb’s forces. It is one force acting at different space scales.

The presence of geometric meaning in such a model allows us to formulate its understanding. First and foremost, we are surrounded by spatial objects, so that our mind is operating mainly in geometric categories.

The above model is also important because it can explain why the electron does not fall on the nucleus. The existing stable “orbits” of electrons are a consequence of the absence of the counteraction of oppositely directed forces. In the process of a coordinated interaction of forms, the forces are in balance – in the sense that they do not exist at all. Thus electrons do not lose energy.

In the case of electrons, there is no inherent inertia of macro objects. Any elementary form has a mass as equivalently a relatively compact space. That is not matter in our understanding. More details as to the occurrence of the phenomenon of inertial mass will be discussed in the Appendix to the present paper.

It should be noted that at the present moment the origin of the electric charge and of Coulomb’s force has no available explanation.

5.3 Interaction of a nucleus and its surrounding electrons in an atom.

Wave envelopes of a nucleus.

As it was already mentioned, because the nuclei, as composite forms, possess a set of wave envelopes (boundaries), the interaction for a certain set of electrons becomes possible.

These wave envelopes are located “within in each other” (like dolls within a matryoshka doll). Each wave envelope is one of the resonant manifestations of the interacting proton and neutron forms. This distribution of boundaries in a certain sense is corresponding to the so-called electron orbits, or atomic energy levels. That is, electron orbits can be represented as wave envelopes through which the orbiting electrons are interacting (along which they are “rotating”). More intense boundaries of a nucleus form are located within less intense boundaries.

These boundaries are obeying some rules regarding the distance from the nucleus, the intensity, and the character of dynamics. Each boundary shows a strictly defined wave dynamics. In other words, the dynamics of particles is quantized corresponding to their order. Accordingly, the possible dynamics of an electron on any wave envelope is thus defined.

This dynamics is defined in such a way that electrons moving along the “spherical spirals” do not “meet” each other within one wave envelope. The more so, they do not meet when on different envelopes.

More external envelopes are less intense, and they interact with an electron with less force than internal envelopes. This explains the different strengths of the electron-to-nucleus binding at different levels.

The above model does not correspond to real motions of electrons inside an atom, already because it is impossible to specify their real motion. This model is intended to show and explain the principle of interaction only.

5.4 Motions of electrons outside atoms. Lines of force.

Electromagnetic interactions.

“Circular” movement (circulation) under the action of Coulomb forces (for example, an electron in an atom) is a coordinated counter-rotation of one form over the surface of another rotating form. This is a stable interaction.

The line of force does not exist in reality. It can be represented as a trajectory of translational motion of a rotating form, as a line with waves traveling in the opposite direction with respect to the rotation of the form of a charge (Fig. 13). Of course, a charged object can as well move translationally just as a material body in the absence of the Coulomb forces.

Fig. 13

In any region of space, there can be many charges, and hence many rotating boundaries of envelopes with different parameters of rotation. An electron, interacting with a certain superposition of these boundaries by means of “attraction and repulsion”, moves in the prevailing direction.

In the case of interaction of not elementary, but macroscopic charges, any such charge is to be considered as the result of a coordinated superposition of all components of its elementary charges. That is, macroscopic charges are summarized rotating envelopes. Such summation is possible due to the fact that all elementary charges are identical.

The summarized charged forms also have many periodic boundaries of decreasing intensity. In this way, the long-range action is produced. It should be assumed that in the case of such a summarized charge, the intensity of the boundaries of this periodic series – and hence the force of interaction – decreases, following the inverse square law.

But how does the electromagnetic interaction occur?

A charge “rolls” (moves translationally) along a form rotating towards it (along the “line of force”), and thus this charge rotates in two perpendicular planes. This means that the electric field line of force, being a wave, also propagates in the direction perpendicular to that of the translational motion of an electron along this line. In other words, the form along which an electron moves also rotates in two planes “at each point” of interaction with this electron, but it rotates oppositely. This is how an oscillation occurs and why it propagates in two perpendicular planes (Fig. 14).

The interaction of forms without charge is not their mutual rotation. Such forms do not rotate, but oscillate. Therefore, their interaction is a mutual oscillation (swing) of such forms against each other. Its character depends on the relative size of the forms and on the angle of oscillation.

Fig. 14

The identification of the electromagnetic field into a separate type is a consequence of not only a relatively high degree of intensity of the boundaries of forms having a charge. Another reason for this is the presence of observable superpositions of charged forms of significant size around us. In addition, most significant electromagnetic interactions are artificially organized in order to show their strength. And for this reason they are all the more presented as a separate type of interaction. However, the nature of electromagnetic and gravitational interactions is the same: it is natural tendency to eliminate differences in the gravity levels (in space density), it is Arrow’s action.

The above models are a significant simplification and thus they do not reflect the truth to the desired extent. It would be wrong to literally associate these models with the dynamics of mechanical systems and with the laws inherent in this dynamics, since these models demonstrate the mutual dynamics of metrics, and not of any sort of matter. They help understanding the essence of this interaction, which is the following:

Electromagnetic interactions can be represented as mutual translational-rotational dynamics of physical forms.

6. Intra-nuclear interactions.

An atomic nucleus is a complex – composite – physical form with a set of intensity-decreasing boundaries. Correspondingly, nuclei have a mass and space dimensions.

One can imagine some simple model describing the main things to occur in the nucleus. This possibility appears to be based on the concept of form. Forms are objects. Therefore, the model of mutual dynamics of quantum forms can also be quite objective.

6.1 Interaction of quarks.

It should be noted that quarks as separate physical forms are not registered. Moreover, their charge is “fractional” in magnitude, i.e. not integer. Therefore, it makes sense to treat such forms as some spatial wave conditions which are leading to stable oscillations as a summarized form containing these quarks. Such conditions do not exist individually, they can only be identified in a group, like, say, different variables in one equation. But because these conditions lead to occurring real massive particles, they are to be considered as real oscillatory processes.

This situation is similar to that one in which a certain process becomes represented as a sum of harmonics. After all, it can be argued that there are no such harmonics in reality, but there is only a process that we observe, so that harmonics are only a convenient technical instrument for studying this process. But the opposite can also be argued, assuming that the process under study is made by its real physical components.

Figures 15, 16 demonstrate how quarks can interact in the nucleus. At the nuclear level, oscillation frequencies are higher, distances are shorter, and the boundaries of forms are much more intense (more sharp and contrasting) than in the case of a nucleus and an electron. Accordingly, the relative strength of interaction gets also higher. That is why this force is considered to be due to a different, separate type of interactions.

We have already shown that, in accordance with the concept of the present work, the coordinated (consistent) mutual rotation of forms has the property of electric interaction. The interaction of quarks as “partially charged” particles is also the interaction of rotating forms, as in the case of an electron and a nucleus. The dynamics of quarks is combining the aspects of rotation and oscillation, and the quarks interact with each other in the consistent dynamics. This type of dynamics can be called “mutual swing”: when the forms are rotating along each other, their rotation axes are “swinging” within some solid angle.

The difference in the dynamics of forms of U- and d-quarks is their different swing angles and in the size of the forms.

A U-quark has a smaller form and a larger solid angle within which this form is swinging. A U-quark possesses a relatively higher rotational energy than a d-quark. Accordingly, d-quark has a smaller swinging angle and a larger size of the form.

In the case of a proton (Fig. 15), two U-quarks “roll along a wave-like trajectory” over one d-quark. The U-quarks combine rotation and oscillation (rotation being predominant). Accordingly, the d-quark performs oscillatory motions within a certain solid angle and also it has the aspect of counter-rotation (of opposite direction) relative to each of the U-quarks. In the d-quark, oscillation prevails over rotation. As for their forms, it d-quark’s form is “more spacious” than that of the U-quark.

The U-quark has a larger “rotation aspect” than the d-quark, and therefore its charge is greater in magnitude (+2\3) than that of the d-quark (–1\3).

The U-quarks "do not meet" with each other and do not repel each other, and with this they get attracted to the d-quark, ensuring the stability of the proton. In general, this three-quark system performs a constant rotation in two perpendicular planes. Dynamical superposition of these three forms generates a common “outside” form of a proton, which rotates and carries a positive unity charge.

In the case of a neutron (Fig. 16), one U-quark is “rolling” along a wave-like trajectory between two swinging d-quarks. Here, too, this G-quark has a greater aspect of rotation, while the d-quarks have a greater aspect of oscillation.

In the case of a “free” neutron, the absence of constant rotation as a stabilizing aspect does not allow it to be stable and to exist for a long time, in comparison with a long-lived, rotating proton.

The superposition of these three forms of quarks creates a common “outer” form of a neutron. And this form is swinging within a certain solid angle. It does not rotate and has no charge.

Fig. 15

Fig. 16

Therefore, the quark-holding force is of the same origin as it is for gravitational and electromagnetic interactions. It also holds together – with an increasing force – a combination of particles, preventing their forms from either separation or, conversely, “penetration into each other” (Fig. 4). This situation can be called a confinement.

6.2 Proton-neutron interactions.

Protons and neutrons are forms. They are superpositions of interactions of the forms of their corresponding quarks.

The dominant existing view of an atomic nucleus explains the retention of equally charged protons in the nucleus by the confrontation of forces of different nature. There is no confrontation in the model proposed here. There is no “struggle” in the stable interaction of forms.

Protons and neutrons are retained in the nucleus due to the correlated dynamics of interaction of their forms.

Unfortunately, it is difficult to present a rather illustrative spatial model here due to limited graphical capabilities. Importantly, however: such a model is possible.

Such a model can work simplistically as follows. Neighboring neutrons are swinging over each other within a certain solid angle, and protons – “rolling” along the wave-like trajectories, each over its related neutron (Fig. 17, 18).

Fig. 17

Fig. 18

Such trajectories, made with a certain combination of their parameters, allow protons moving along their neighboring electrons so as to never “meet”.

As well, protons “evade” interacting with their neighboring neutrons. This serves as the basis for nuclear stability.

However, the more protons and neutrons are contained in the nucleus, the higher is the complexity of the wave system and the higher are the requirements for consistency of various specific oscillations within this system. At a certain threshold level of complexity, the probability of the system to exit the coordinated mode becomes high enough to be realized in an event that we can statistically register. It is also possible to observe a violation of the consistency of the wave dynamics of the nucleus under external influences, including those created artificially. The result of such violations may be the decay of the nucleus.

Evaluating the interaction models already given and the models that will follow below, it is important for us to understand that the mutual oscillation of wave envelopes, although it is not the mutual rotation, as it is for the charges of opposite signs, does not fundamentally differ in any way from the latter. It is still the dynamical process of interaction, and it makes this interaction stable.

Therefore, in particular, the stable state of matter containing only neutrons is possible. Such an object may have the properties of a single, consistent oscillatory system. It may lack such a phenomenon as resistance to bending and to displacement within some limits. And this can display a state similar to superfluidity.

Thus, as a result of the nuclear dynamics presented above, the neighboring neutrons are interacting with each other, and protons – with neutrons. At the same time, the charged forms “do not conflict”. In the above model, the form of the neutron is somewhat more “spacious” than that of the proton.

The relative strength of the described interactions of protons and neutrons is lower than it is for quarks. This is because of a lower degree of intensity of the boundaries of forms of protons and neutrons, and because of their lower oscillation frequencies, compared to those for quarks, and, correspondingly, because of larger dimensions of the forms. But the nature of these forces here and there is the same.

As a result of the superposition of the inner forms of the nucleus, a more external form of the atomic nucleus is produced, as a whole. It has a periodic series of boundaries (forms). These boundaries are in rotational dynamics. Their wave parameters are uniquely given by the composition of the inner forms.

6.3 About stability and symmetry.

The nucleus is in a stable state, in balance, because there is no counteraction of forces of different nature inside it, but there is balance (absence of forces), or symmetry.

Symmetry, that is inherent in the stable interaction of forms, is based on the common nature of all forms. If we assume that the nature of the existing forces is different, then no stable balance between such forces appears to be principally possible.

Empirically, the physical world is organized symmetrically. This speaks of a common origin of all matter. Symmetric interaction of the boundaries of forms defines the main property of matter – the stability of the existence of material objects. It is for this reason that we can say about matter that it exists.

Due to the symmetry of interaction, quarks, protons and neutrons do not “merge”, and electrons do not “fall” on atomic nuclei. That is why molecules are retaining their configuration and their properties, and material bodies possess their stable shapes.

The fundamental ability of physical forms to symmetrical – and therefore stable – interactions is the basis of the material world.

7. Integration of atoms into molecules.

The properties of the substances are so diverse as to appear to be due to a huge number of different physicochemical properties of atoms, molecules and their compounds.

In the light of this work, all this diversities in the properties are determined only by the variants of the consistent (symmetric) wave dynamics of interaction of the forms of molecules and atoms, as it is for the already considered cases of interaction of quarks, protons and neutrons, electrons and nuclei.

For chemical bonds, the same single force is acting, as in the case of nuclear and electromagnetic interactions already considered.

7.1 Interaction of atoms.

Chemical properties of interacting atoms are defined by the range of possible parameters of the respective motions of their forms over each other (rotation and oscillation).

The atomic form appears as a dynamical superposition of the forms of nuclei and electrons, and this form is external relative to those original forms. More precisely, for a free, non-interacting form, it is a decaying series of wave forms (boundaries). Any of these boundaries can start interacting with some certain probability given by the concrete conditions, so that an atom can demonstrate a variety of interaction parameters and reveal different chemical properties, participating in the formation of substances with different physicochemical properties.

Commonly, the forms of atoms carry no electric charges, and they do not possess the rolling aspect but have only the swinging aspect within a certain solid angle.

The concrete dynamics and geometry of each of the atomic wave forms, their number and their location in space depend on the composition and the dynamics of internal forms and, as well, on certain “external” influences from other forms (for example, pressure).

So, the form of a “free” atom is a whole series of the intensity-decreasing wave forms. Therefore, atoms – as well as, generally, any other complex forms – are able to interact, starting from some of their outer boundaries – from some “large” distances – when their interaction becomes sufficient to producing mutual “attraction or repulsion”. This is demonstrated, for example, by the reactions of substances in solutions, where initial inter-atom separations are much greater than the ranges of their establishing chemical bonds.

It is worth repeating once again that the chemical properties of atoms relative to each other are defined by the space dynamics of their forms.

The interaction inside a molecule looks like mutual (counter) circular oscillations of the boundaries of the atomic forms “against each other" (swinging) with some frequency and binding force within a certain angle.

The proposed view of chemical interactions is different from the canonical picture. It is based on alternative concepts. And it is a consistent complementary part of the concept of physical form, thus encompassing the whole field of possible applications for this concept to explain the laws of nature.

Considering the interaction of atoms more specifically and at the same time, of course, in frames of a model, we can represent this as follows: the chemical properties of atoms are determined by the possibility for one atom to offer some part of the “area” of its form for its coordinated wave interaction with some part of the form of another atom.

Not one, but several forms can interact with some one particular form without “conflicting” with each other, because their positioning occurs in different areas of space (Fig. 19).

Fig. 19

These several forms can denote identical atoms, or they can be different atoms – in which case their mutual oscillation will be limited by different solid angles and will have different bond strengths. The strength level depends on the intensity of the boundaries, which is higher for “more internal” boundaries, all other factors being equal.

The establishment of the stable interaction of several forms can be achieved only when there is no counteraction (conflict) between the “neighboring” interacting forms. Forms whose interaction with one and the same (common to them) form is mutual counter oscillation (swing) can possess a “co-directed” aspect of rotation. And if their locations are close, there occurs a repulsion of these forms, as if they had one common sign of their “charge” (which has previously been already considered). This limits the number of bonds between atoms.

Of course, the described principle of interaction of atoms (and forms in general) is realized as a prevailing tendency or preference. A huge number of forms are interacting in a volume of matter. They affect each other with different intensity, depending on the distance, mutual orientation, amplitude-frequency parameters of boundaries, and other factors. Therefore, in addition to the prevailing types of interactions (characteristic of chemical properties), some specific types can also occur under some external conditions (including those created artificially).

For a simpler understanding of what follows, and somewhat looking ahead, we should accept the following: the presence of a whole series of intensity-decreasing wave envelopes (boundaries) in forms is characteristic of only those forms “free” from interaction. If the fact of interaction is established, only that wave envelope remains existing (predominating) with which this interaction occurs. In this case, the wave parameters of the interacting envelopes will be different from the original envelopes, because each of them becomes part of a new oscillatory system.

Now, for example, we can show – on the example of the molecules of CH₄, NH₃, H₂O and HF – how the chemical properties of atoms are determined by the interaction of forms, and then consider the spatial essence of the oxidant property (Fig. 20).

Fig.20

The more to the right in the Table of chemical elements an atom is (the more it is an oxidizer), the more complex is the structure of the boundaries of its form. The number of the boundaries increases, the intensity of the external boundaries decreases, and the intensity of the internal boundaries rises. As the result, more active oxidants use more internal boundaries of forms for interaction. These boundaries have a smaller area which can be provided for interaction. Therefore, a less number of hydrogen atoms react with more active oxidants (in our example).

Because the interacting boundary of the oxidizer form becomes more and more internal, an increasing number of external boundaries are “collapsing” and become emitted as photons (this will be discussed in more detail in the relevant chapters below). Therefore, the greatest release of energy occurs when hydrogen interacts with fluorine, the most active oxidizer.

Also, the most active oxidizer reacts most intensively, because the interacting boundary is more internal, and thus more intense, and therefore it enters more actively into a bond. The increase in the intensity of the considered reaction from carbon to fluorine is also associated with an increase in the number of external boundaries of their forms before interaction, or “free” forms. This leads to a more pronounced “long-range action”. The forms of hydrogen and of oxidizer converge faster, and the reaction gets faster. In the process of this convergence, the external boundaries of the oxidizer forms are successively collapsing (relative to the form that will interact steadily).

So, the oxidative activity of an atom is primarily determined by a relative decrease in the “diameter” of the form and by an increase in the intensity of its interacting boundary, and also by a relative increase in the number of external boundaries of the free form.

Accordingly, the reconstitution properties are related to the fact that atoms with more pronounced reconstitution properties have – other things being equivalent – fewer external boundaries of the free form, but these boundaries are relatively more intense. This is why the interacting boundary of a more active reducing agent is relatively larger in size.

For example, when reducing iron with carbon, oxygen (all other factors being equal) has a choice between a larger area of the carbon boundary and a smaller area of the iron boundary. For a reduction reaction to go, energy is required to increase the temperature and thus to create more amount of interactions, needed to increase the probability for oxygen to make its choice in favor of a larger area for interaction.

The chemical properties of atoms are determined not only by the ability to provide some particular “area” of the wave envelope and by the degree of intensity of this envelope, but also by the amplitude-frequency parameters of its oscillations.

For example, the neon atom is practically inactive chemically, but the “neighboring” fluorine atom is extremely active. This is explained by the difference in the wave amplitudes of the envelopes of these atoms. When the electron orbit of neon is filled, the wave amplitude drops sharply. This is caused by the fact that the wave system becomes fully balanced and its spectrum gets dramatically simplified. In turn, the amplitude drop (all other parameters being equal) reduces the strength of the bond between the wave envelopes, decreasing the probability of the formation of a chemical bond.

As already mentioned, each specific boundary of each specific form has its own set of amplitude and frequency parameters. For a stable interaction (chemical bond) to occur, these parameters must be maximally consistent with the parameters of the specific boundary form of another atom. This determines, on the one hand, the chemical diversity, and on the other hand, a kind of a qualitative standard of these interactions, their stable repeatability, as long as the set of atomic boundaries is strictly defined and changes discretely. This repeatability is a consequence of the initial quantization and strict determinism of the parameters of elementary forms. This in turn is a consequence of the unity of the origin of these forms.

To recall once again, the wave dynamics is revealed not by an object of the microcosm, but by the boundaries of its form, which represent an enhanced density of space. And the boundary’s swing or rotation is the movement of the crests of the wave process along the surface of equal gravity (equal space density). No rolling or swing occurs here, as it is for a macroscopic object.

So, the variants of chemical bonds are a consequence of the spatial variants of the wave interaction of forms.

In general, from the different variants of the interaction of forms, nature – Arrow – selects the most compact and most stable option.

The Periodic system of elements can be represented as a systematization of periodic changes in the sizes of interacting boundaries of forms, in the number and distribution of the intensity of these boundaries.

If we consider the Periodic table in this way, then – from its left to right – the forms are tending to increase the number of boundaries of the form yet not in interaction, and to decrease the size of the interacting boundary while increasing the intensity of this boundary, all other factors being equal. From top to bottom of the Periodic table, there is a tendency to increasing the size of forms and the number of borders, and to decreasing their intensity (again, other factors being equal).

7.2 Interaction of molecules.

The interacting forms of the atoms in a molecule generate, as a kind of superposition, a number of boundaries external to them – already as part of the form of a molecule.

Depending on its internal composition, the form of a simple molecule cannot but swing, or as well have a rolling aspect. In case it has this aspect, it has a charge (it is an ion).

The interactions of various complex molecules are more diverse and less stable, because the boundaries of their forms are less intense. In general, each such molecule can be represented as a complex spatial resonator that amplifies (prefers) certain spatial oscillations when interacting with another molecule (or with their fragments in the case of a long molecule). That is, a stable bond between molecules is formed when some special spatial (geometric) conditions of their mutual arrangement are fulfilled. These conditions, too, have a standard, periodic and space-damping character, and they are most diverse in the interaction of long and complex molecules, for example, proteins.

7.3 Some conclusions about the above presented models of interactions of forms.

Of course, the presented model of interactions of particles, atoms and molecules looks mechanistic, naive and even primitive. But it really cannot be complicated, because the physical world has a geometric, spatial nature.

This model is intrinsically consistent. It is broad and provides a basis for including and combining different types of interactions – and not by uncovering their relationships, but by presenting these different interactions as manifestations of the unified nature of all forces. And this is the fundamental cause of the symmetry, balance and stability of material structures.

This model gives a unique physical meaning to all types of interactions.

For the present moment, all types of interactions have been observed a long time now, and they are given a mathematical representation, but they are understood as not having a unified nature.

One of the difficulties in finding the unified nature of matter is that the search for new things is always constrained by existing knowledge.

In the search for the unified nature of the physical world, new ideas are needed above all, because ideas are hierarchically higher than the form of their representation.

A unified physical theory is to possess a unified physical meaning.

8. Once again: about gravity, space density, and origin of matter.

8.1 Dynamics of space density.

Let us define now, following the concepts of the present work, what is gravity and its dynamically created physical forms.

Searches for any certain substance from which matter is made at the original level have given no confirmative results so far. The only fact available is the existence of space and time.

In this paper we are putting the idea that everything existing consists of only space and time, – or, more precisely, of the dynamics of space density.

Different levels of gravity are due to different space densities.

Forces arising in all types of interactions are due the difference in space density in a certain area at a certain moment of time.

The space density differences can be interpreted as a propagating wave, or they can be organized into an oscillating physical form.

However, only when the form is present we can say that:

– there is something existing (measurable) objectively,

– this thing possesses mass,

– we can associate a frame of reference with it.

In other words, only with the appearance of a closed boundary does certainty, or concreteness, appear. Measurability appears. And therefore objectivity appears – meaning an object and a reference frame to be associated with it.

The above statements are simple, but uneasy to accept. Yet they have to be accepted for further understanding. The reader therefore will find it useful for a while to side off usual ideas regarding space, time and matter.

Thus everything that exists physically and, therefore, can be determined (measured), represents forms and their superpositions of different scales. They all have a mass as a measure of the amount of space they enclose.

Physical matter is the organization of space density wave dynamics as a connected interaction of physical forms.

The term “space density”, of course, can be taken in quotation marks.

Different space densities are to be understood as different metrics in different space areas.

The level of gravity serves a kind of a space density indicator.

Differences in gravity in the basic law of Arrow (postulated in Chapt. 1) are differences in space density (metric).

Space density differences of any levels (levels of difference) determine different strengths of interaction of forms and demonstrate the seeming difference in the types of physical interactions.

It is clear that some effort is being needed to accept this. Nonetheless, this approach frees us from searching for what in fact is absent: any entity existing separately from space.

8.2 Interaction and development of physical forms.

The interaction of forms is always associated with mutual revolution (rolling) or circular oscillation (swing). This leads to a relative movement of forms towards their most stable and most “compact” interaction, with the dynamically consistent (coordinated) “merging” of the boundaries of forms.

But this is an idealized case. Realistically, forms interact with a large number of other forms, via their different boundaries having different intensities and different levels of parametrical consistency. The process of bringing two concrete forms to their stable interaction is accompanied by the diverse changes in the dynamics of these forms and by their volume deformations. Therefore, the most stable interaction is never occurring. Any realistic case is always accompanied by a kind of “spectral enrichment” of the oscillations of forms compared to the idealized spectrum, that is, by the presence of some “beats” which, being amplified under certain conditions, can lead to the destruction of interactions or even to the destruction of the interacting forms themselves (of one of their boundaries) with their subsequent emission. The level of complexity proves an important aspect of stability. The more complex is the composition of form (for example, an atom), the less stable it is, all other factors being equal. The period of destruction of such a form is only a matter of the evolution of “parasitic” beats up to a point that can be called a significant violation of symmetry.

Thus we see that the development of forms at the microscopic level is the production of the most stable and compact interactions (which can be classified). At the macroscopic level, physical matter proves the sum of a multitude of interactions of elementary forms.

Superpositions of forms tend to combine and condense, creating larger and larger superpositions with increasingly “blurred” and weakly pronounced boundaries, with the intensity distribution increasingly more corresponding to the inverse square law.

By combining, these large superpositions (material bodies) give rise to ever larger – on a cosmological scale – material associations with boundaries so weakly pronounced already that they are not detected by our instruments. These associations contain and “spread around” space or gravity. In fact, this becomes the visible volume of space. This space density is not homogeneous, but this inhomogeneity can be detected near the clusters of matter only. Very far from such clusters, space, as already mentioned, is simply rest, or extension, it is an existing specific and slightly changing metric.

Thus as we can see the Universe is filled with space. We consider this space to be the receptacle of the Universe. We attribute to this receptacle only the property of extension. However, space is the essence of what we call matter. In it, does space appear to be dynamically organized into perceptible (visible) objects.

9. Particles as space-time.

Particles in fact are both waves and objects.

9.1 Particle as space density oscillation in a form.

A particle is an oscillating and limited (therefore definite and objective) space area.

All the same, it is not space itself that is oscillating (which would not make sense), but space density, or its metric. More specifically, it is the boundaries of a physical form that are oscillating to reveal a closed surface of maximum space equidensity. The boundary stands out and defines the object. It can be said that this is a “film”, or a “shell” of condensed space, and it is resonant in nature.

The form has its concrete spatial dimensions at each moment of time, but in every part of this space the boundary configuration is different and the probabilities of interaction (detection) are different as well. With all that, it is a dynamic object whose configuration is always changing in the course of time, and the probability to detect is getting different as well. In this sense, forms obey the uncertainty principle. Forms have a mass which is a measure of the amount of their enclosed space.

As already said, there are no other basic entities in the physical Universe than space and time. Therefore, it is worth changing the approach to the definition of matter, now considering materiality (objectivity) as the presence of the spatial form.

Thus as we can see, a material particle is the result of wave dynamics of space density within a closed boundary. This result is measurable and can be considered objectively.

But if all that exists in our physical world is but space and time, then where specifically time is “located” in the particle?

9.2 Extending the concept of time.

Basic physical theories are using time as running counter readings or as a point moving on a coordinate axis, following to these readings. That is, time is conventionally represented as a flow or as an accumulation of numbers. This is due to the fact that the basic dynamics of the physical world is represented by cycles. Therefore, it is convenient and customary to relate changes with the number of cycles of a periodic process. With the cycles of pendulum oscillations, with the Earth axial rotation and orbital revolution, with the Sun, etc. In other words, time is associated with the accumulation in memory of the amount of cycles of a periodic process.

Relying on cyclical processes on our scale allows us to make predictions. And this is the basis for all human concepts about the physical world and for human survival. However, this is a local representation.

The present author does not pretend to give a definition of time. No one yet has done this any satisfactorily. However, a broader understanding of time could be offered.

In addition to such a property of time as an “accumulation of the number of cycles”, time is also a quality of the surrounding world, which is opposite to its determinism and objectiveness. Time is the quality of an object, and thus of an area of space. And this quality can be defined in different ways. Below we give one of possible definitions of time – being not a flow, but a quality in relation to an object.

Time is the quality of an object considered. Time determines the degree of its variability and diversity (heterogeneity, multiplicity), which is opposite to the degree of its measurability or objectiveness.

Under certain conditions, this quality can be defined also as the inverse of the probability of the existence (detection) of something in specific circumstances – and, as well, as the degree of variability, or diversity of something.

In other words, “being filled with time”, an object (or an event) becomes less measurable, less objective. There appear more and more options for its detection, whereas the probability of this detection in specific circumstances is less and less.

Everything in the physical world exists in motion, in change, and can therefore be determined (measured) only within some accuracy or probability, since the very act of measurement requires a certain amount of space and time. In the space-time essence, only space objectively exists and is measurable. But it is not possible to separate absolutely space from time, to measure it separately, because it is inextricably connected with time (it is dynamic).

If time is the degree of variability and mobility of an object, then space embodies measurability (objectivity), state of rest and unity.

Essentially, what we call space within our ordinary perception is just the state of rest. Extension as a characteristic of space is a convenient instrument at some conditions. This is a local representation of space. Much like the local representation of time as cycles is convenient, the local representation of space as an extension is convenient and familiar as well, because the observer himself is local. The said above is worth considering carefully, and more will be said about it below.

It is still possible to measure with some accuracy how much space is confined in an object. In terms of physical notions, the amount of space in an object is equivalent to its measurable mass.

Time itself cannot be measured physically, because it is not a form and not objectiveness, but a quality. Time in an object – as motion, as variability – can only be determined indirectly (calculated).

Time does not belong to the category of matter. It acquires physical significance only with the appearance of a physical form, only as a quality of this form, a quality of space.

In a way, the combination of space and time can be illustrated by the example of two forms of equal total energy, shown in Fig. 21.

Fig. 21

Particle A is more dynamic and changeable than particle B.

Then particle A contains more time than particle B.

Particle B contains more space than particle A.

Then mass (amount of space) of particle B is greater than that of particle A.

Particle B is closer to state of rest and it has more properties of a corpuscle compared to particle A. Particle A is more wave-like than particle B.

A particle of the microcosm, as a dynamical form, consists of space-time in the literal sense.

When turning to the quantum world, the use of time as a “flow of values of a counter” is losing its meaning, since we do not have counters corresponding to this world (for example, counters of the number of “revolutions” of a particle) and we do not have the corresponding memory size. The cyclic periods in this world are too large relative to the period of our measurements. Therefore, in fact one understands (although implicitly) time here as described above, in the framework of the probability concept. It acquires its greatest importance for studying the quantum world.

The cause of this is not only the lack of fast-working instruments. In the microcosm, the determination of the number of cycles (even if it is carried out) cannot, practically, be related by us with cycle-to-cycle successive changes.

The “proper” time of particles of the microcosm as the readings of the cycle counter, practically does not correlate for us with the causal relationship. For us it is literally “meaningless”, because of the global difference between the space-time scale of concrete phenomena and that of the observer.

Therefore, in the microcosm, time can be defined only as the degree of mobility, variability, indeterminism, or as a parameter which is opposite as to its meaning to the probability of detecting something in specific circumstances.

9.3 Arrow in quantum world and direction of time.

Another definition of time.

The action of Arrow – as the fundamental principle – extends to all physical processes. The interaction of forms of the microcosm is obeying this principle as well. Particles are “tending” to create their common area of interaction, being also the area of symmetry of their boundaries, the area of consistent oscillations, the area of energy concentration. Particles are tending to unite, to create their common space, their common mass. By interacting (including with the measuring instrument), particles cease to be free, to be field perturbations. They become definite; they become objects, part of matter.

This is how Arrow is working in the quantum world. The objects of the microcosm are tending to interact steadily (symmetrically), giving rise to more integrity, more mass, creating and extending the scope of the objective.

Arrow has only one direction, because it gives rise to more and more new forms. Not only the quantum world, but the entire physical world exists in ongoing motion. And all changes are irreversible because they have the direction. Thus when considering what is happening not locally, but in the widest context, it is worth following the principle: nothing is repeating.

This is the essence of direction of time.

Thus additionally, we can give another definition of time:

Turning to the expanding future is filling with time. This filling is an endless growth of the amount of less and less likely specific events.

However strange it might be, the same applies when turning back to the past. The definition of past events as those that have happened in this or that concrete way is due to the presence of memory. But memory is a storage medium. This is not the reality itself, but its model. If you erase information, then the past becomes only probable, since any expanding volume of past events could lead to “today’s” state.

We meet a similar situation when analyzing some specific event and splitting it to smaller and faster events “inside it”. There grow more and more possible concrete events, and their probabilities get smaller and smaller.

In mathematics, which reflects reality, we also can see the filling with time. For example, the larger a number is, the less likely becomes its specific definition. And for the case of a set of numbers tending to an infinite volume, the probability for any specific number to be determined (to exist) is tending to zero. That is why physicists often treat the sorts of infinity-leading expressions as absurd – and that is right. Because this means the complete ignorance. This is the complete predominance of time, now in the aspect of multiplicity.

All above things considered, we can define time in the following way:

Time, as the embodiment of multiplicity, variability and difference, can be treated as uncertainty, or ignorance.

This becomes directly related to the quantum world. Regarding our space-time scales, this world largely consists of time; consist of ignorance in the literal sense. A microcosm object can be detected. But the probability of its detection in specific circumstances is zero.

And in this regard, the uncertainty principle can be considered as maintaining the balance of space-time in the local area. An increase in knowledge about some certain parameter leads to a loss of knowledge about another parameter.

9.4 Spin of forms.

The concept of physical form does not prevent a particle from having its spin.

A form, as a closed surface of compacted space along which waves (wave humps) run, can indeed have a spin of different sort due to different paths of motion of “specific” wave humps running along the surface of the form.

It is necessary to remind once again that the form of a particle does not rotate and/or swing in the common sense, as a whole object. The form is a wave process with properties similar to rotation and swing. And the notion of spin can be applied to this process.

Here is an example. Let us mark with a point one of the “humps” of the running wave of the form’s surface and let this point revolve along the form (sphere) describing a one-turn (one revolution) spiral. Then we see that for this point to return to its initial position, this spiral has to make two full revolutions around this sphere. Yet another representation is also possible, when for one revolution of the sphere “rolling” in some azimuthal direction there is just half turn of this sphere in the transverse plane. Both of these representations can be interpreted in terms of the 1/2 spin.

9.5 Once again about the dualism of quantum forms.

When a particle is in a “free” state, its physical form has a number of boundaries of decreasing intensity, frequency and propagation, and with increasing interval between them – as it was shown earlier. Therefore, it is susceptible to long-range action and can be detected (due to interaction) in a significant space-time area, with some probability. That is, the free state of a particle produces an uncertainty of its parameters and gives it the wave or field properties.

Quantum forms are wave systems. When, as such, they begin interacting consistently and steadily, their wave parameters are getting specified. We can formulate this as follows: their wave energy is “concentrated” on specific parameters (boundaries) of interaction, because this interaction is “resonant”. This means that the forms of interacting particles already have – each – one relatively strongly pronounced boundary. The remaining boundaries are “collapsing”, that is, changing parameters and intensifying rather weakly, so much as to be neglected. The field disappears in a certain sense. At the same time, the interacting boundary is getting very intense, that is, it creates a strong force and high stability of interaction, since there is a concentration of energy to this boundary. The form becomes definite, and objective.

Such a representation is extremely important.

It explains the stability of matter.

For example, it is the interaction with neutrons that allows equally charged protons to exist – remain in balance – at relatively small mutual distances in the nucleus: this is because protons are losing the ability of long-range action. For this same reason, electrons do not “conflict” with each other when interacting with one of wave envelopes of the nucleus.

In other words, the interaction processes change the properties of an elementary particle, converting it from a field state to a compact, short-range action object. Of course, such a distinctive change is not absolute. Just it is expressed to a sufficient degree for the steady existence of physical matter.

Steadily interacting quantum particles are not prone to long-range action. They acquire the properties of an object.

Dualism of microcosmic particles in their physical manifestations is determined by weather there is or there isn’t any stable interaction of their forms with other forms, including the measuring instruments.

However, to be more precise, we should speak not about the absence or presence of interaction, but about the intensity of interaction. A particle, which is absolutely free from interactions, is an idealized case. Realistic particles, those revealing a long-range action (or field properties), are interacting with their outermost and weakly pronounced boundaries already at the farthest distances. Such a long-range interaction is usually too weak to be registered. That is, the fact that the object or field possesses specific properties is to be understood not absolutely, but as a pronounced predominance of the object or field under discussion. A quantum object is always a wave system, as long as it exists as a physical form, even extremely compact. Such object never possesses absolute boundaries.

9.6 Tendency of forms for compactness.

We have said already that a free form can be represented as a field of periodic boundaries, their being decreasingly intense with their distance from center. Forms always interact with some certain intensity, as a sort of a continuing, developing process. Since their inner boundaries are more intense, the forms are tending to interact with these boundaries, because in this case the interaction is getting stronger and more stable. Therefore, the superposition of interacting forms tends to become the most compact.

9.7 Forms and certain thermodynamic aspects.

Speaking of gases, we treat them as associations of atomic forms with relatively complex structures of their wave envelopes. Such envelopes are relatively more numerous. At the same time, the outer envelopes are relatively less intense.

When turning to liquids, we can now treat them as associations of forms with more simple structures of wave envelopes. Such envelopes are less numerous, than in gases, and the intensity of the outer envelopes is higher.

When gas volume is forcibly reduced, the outer envelopes get rather easily deformed, one after another, because they contain less energy than the inner envelopes. They contain a large amount of visible space, so that gas volume gets significantly reduced. At sufficient deformations, the envelopes begin to “burst” one after another, giving rise to emission. Thermal energy is thus being released, and the mass (space) of forms is transforming into wave energy. With further compression, gas is turning into liquid state and is no longer compressed any significantly. This is because inner envelopes of the forms become so intense (containing more energy) that they can no longer change significantly their geometric parameters without any strong increase of external pressure. The wave-envelope intensity increase at this stage is quite sharp, because the difference between more internal wave envelopes becomes significantly higher. Here is the phenomenon of changing the aggregate state.

In the reverse process, the composition of wave envelopes is restored (more space is given to forms), since this is a more optimal state of the wave system. The forms are getting bigger, the gas volume is growing. There occurs the reverse transition of wave energy of forms into their mass.

The associations of atoms, that are free-state liquids, are not compressed due to smaller numbers and higher intensities of wave envelopes of atomic forms. Such envelopes contain relatively more energy of oscillations and they cannot deform any significantly.

So we conclude that the different structure of wave envelopes of atomic forms is the cause not only of different chemical properties, but of different aggregate states as well.

9.8 Relativistic aspects in the dynamics of quantum forms.

Below, we will describe the process of how the forms are emerging from the waves. At this moment, we need an evaluation of how forms are affected by the fact that waves propagate at their largest possible velocity, which is that of light. This results in that the wave-created forms oscillate with an extremely high frequency. At the same time, the velocities with which the boundaries of forms are moving are also relativistic.

Due such relativistic propagation of any section of the form’s boundary, its transverse size (reckoned in the direction of propagation) is relatively decreasing. At the same time, there is a relativistic increase in the mass associated with this section of the boundary.

As it was shown above, the relativistic movement of a section of the boundary leads to a relative increase in the mass associated with this section. This is a high-density area of space. Therefore, in the area of direct interaction –“contact” – of the bordering sections of two forms, there is a relative slowdown in the changes. One can say that time is slowing down in the region of interaction. This allows the processes to be occurring smoothly and very precisely in the interaction area, despite the extremely high frequencies of mutual oscillations of the boundaries. In other words, these processes are perfectly coordinated. This is why the interaction of elementary objects can be maximally stable on the scale of a huge number of cycles of mutual rotations and oscillations.

A question may arise here: what is ensuring the existence of such a huge (but finite) number of cycles of mutual oscillations and rotations of elementary forms? Such oscillations are not consuming energy, because what oscillates is metric, not medium.

With increasing spatial size of forms and their complexity (atoms, molecules), the frequencies of oscillations of the outer boundaries of the forms are decreasing. The relativistic effect is thus of relatively little importance now. The intensity of the forms’ boundaries is getting lower. The force of interaction of forms is also decreasing. The masses of the larger forms now are not so strongly concentrated directly within the boundaries of the forms. The chemical bonds, for example, are no longer so strong (relative to the masses) as the intra-nuclear bonds.

The question of free – or non-interacting – forms is also to be considered. Such forms have a large number of boundaries. Essentially, these are perturbations of an infinite field that is decaying due to certain external conditions. And with the growing spatial size, the outer boundaries of the free forms are tending to reducing to zero their intensity (as an idealized case).

It is reasonable to speak about relativistic effects only on the quantum-world scale and in relation to interacting forms that have one intense boundary participating in the interaction.

9.9 Carriers of interactions of forms.

The prevailing views in physics assume that each interaction has its carriers. This paper does not assume the existence of carriers as objects, as specific types of forms. More precisely, we are calling for no special principle to cover the situation when material carriers are needed to provide interactions. Once there is no space separately from matter, then there is no extended emptiness to be overcome.

Interactions are “transferred” by perturbations of space density, and everything consists right of this space, the interacting objects themselves being part of it.

If there is a technical need to single out the carrier of interactions from an overall interaction picture, then this carrier can be proposed as follows. The carrier of a strong interaction can be considered to be some part of the interacting wave envelope of a form. This form possesses some part of the wave-envelope energy and a part of the inner space of the form, which can be conveniently treated as a short-lived particle. That is not a form, because such a particle does not possess a closed surface and a specific mass (although some part of the total mass is associated with this particle). This is not a separate object, and therefore it can be treated as a virtual particle. It always gets created at the moment of interaction, to disappear later. And within this representation the interacting forms are really exchanging their carriers (Fig. 22).

Fig. 22

Of course, this applies not only to elementary forms, but also to larger and more complex forms (atoms, molecules), as long as the principle of interaction of forms is unique.

However, the above does not apply to photons and to carriers of weak interactions.

For weak interactions – neutron decay, for example – the following process can be assumed:

In the framework of the concept of this work, all interactions, including the interactions of quarks in neutrons, are related wave-resonance processes. In this case, changes in the composition of quarks are changes in spatial conditions of a wave process. When this process is turning from one state to another, it is accompanied by a brief but definitely expressed transient process – namely, that leading to the appearance of an intermediate, or transitional, form of what previously was a neutron.

This short-lived form (new boundary) is more external to the original form, having more volume. For the time of its existence it really is a new particle, containing what previously were a neutron and also some additional space. That is, it is impossible to detect at one moment what previously was a neutron and what had newly come as a transitional form. For the lifetime of this form, the initial neutron “stops existing”. With all this, the transition form (particle) can comprise less binding energy, yet having more mass than the initial neutron.

The case with the carriers of electromagnetic interactions gets more complicated, because the notion of a virtual photon has no physical representation.

However, one can try to describe this process as follows. A virtual photon is a path in space that a “point of contact of the forms’ surfaces” is passing when they interact. (Such a rotational-translational motion of an electrically charged form – an electron – was already described in Section 5.4). The path of such a “point of contact” is equivalent to the geometric structure of a photon (we will speak about photons in more detail below). A hypothesis like this is not looking evident, but it does offer an apparent geometric representation of the process.

That is, a curve in space, which is a line of contact between two interacting forms, can be represented as a virtual photon.

And this curve is characterized energetically; it describes a condensation of space. That is, a virtual photon turns out to be real after all. Thus the above description of a virtual photon allows us to get rid of the notion of so-called virtuality, to which no physical definition can be given.

10. Physical forms and photons.

10.1 Photon emission.

In the light of this work, everything existing in nature becomes the result of the space dynamics and develops following one fundamental law.

Photons are part of this dynamic.

The origin of a photon as a limited portion of wave energy can be determined physically – that is, geometrically – only in connection with a specific (limited) physical form. That is, photons are emitted and absorbed by forms only. This is the characteristic feature of photons, which makes them different from other types of wave disturbances.

Photons are being emitted in the process of discrete rapid changes in the parameters of the physical form – concretely, in the course of the decay (“collapse”) of one of the wave envelopes of this form.

Here, by collapse we understand not the disappearance of a wave envelope, but the process of its change reducing the volume of space within it.

When absorbing a photon, a form (one of its wave envelopes) is changing its parameters, discretely and rapidly, so as to get more space volume within it.

What causes the collapse (change) of a concrete boundary of form is the significant change in geometric conditions of its existence (resonance). Violations of the conditions for the existence of wave envelopes can be caused by supplying a form with some quantum of energy by way of radiation. This is to violate spatial conditions of existence of wave envelopes, producing their “spatial deformation” due to collisions of the forms to occur, for example, as the result of heating a material substance or acting on it mechanically.

Speaking much more simply, we can put this as follows: an envelope “bursts” (changes) and gets radiated in the form of a vortex. This looks like an envelope that has “unwound, starting from the pole and then on, spiraling through the equator towards the other pole.”

Geometric parameters of photons are defined by geometric parameters of their producing wave envelopes and by the type of their dynamics.

For example, oscillation eigenfrequency f, period of a spiral, L, and “diameter” A of a photon’s spiral are determined by the oscillation frequency of a wave running on the spiral surface, by “rotation” frequency and by the size of the envelope that generated the photon. Also important is the “space density” “inherited” by the photon from its emitted envelope. This is indicative for how much active becomes a possible subsequent interaction (absorption) of this photon, then with some different form.

With this, as to the form that emitted a photon, the parameters of all its envelopes get changed to varying degrees, because the conditions for the existence of the entire wave system are now different.

It should be noted once again that the collapse of the wave envelope does not mean its literal disappearance. This really means that the photon-emitting envelope significantly changes its parameters.

For example, if a photon is emitted by one of wave envelopes of a nucleus, the one interacting with an electron, then this envelope is changing its parameters for having a lower energy. At the same time, the electron goes on interacting with this envelope, changing the parameters (the envelope getting more compact and stable). This is how the electron is moving from “one level to the other”, or from excitation to normal state, or from less optimal to more optimal resonance conditions.

The photon-emitted form, now more compact and stable, is losing part of its related space, and part of its mass.

Essentially, the mass-to-wave-energy transition is the emission of one of the wave envelopes of the form, producing the parametrical changes in all envelopes. This is accompanied by decreasing the amount of space and mass in this form.

It is worth noting once again that when a photon gets emitted or absorbed, the parameters of all wave envelopes of the form are changing. This alters the properties of this entire form (i.e., of atom), including its physical and chemical properties.

Thus we can state that a photon is a vortex space perturbation with specific characteristics, such as oscillation amplitude, rotational period of a vortex, and its diameter (Fig. 23). The space density distribution in this vortex is thus determined by the space density distribution in the photon-emitted wave envelope.

Fig. 23

Although photons possess their specific parameters, measuring them directly is problematic. Photons are not forms, are not objects. They do not have a mass. They are not material. Photons cannot be related to any certain reference system. One can say that a photon is, in a sense, a quantum of time. But it is in this sense that we see it is impossible to catch up any photon or, moreover, to overtake it: that would violate causal relationship.

Each photon can only have a limited number of periods of its spiral vortex, and a limited energy, and thus it gets defined only partially, and therefore it has some properties of a particle. It can be said that every photon is an evolutionarily intermediate “perturbation” of space between a wave and a form. That is why photons are not only limited, but they also have the aspect of rotation.

The most important property of photons is that, through their spatial parameters, they carry information about their source, and not just a packet of energy. In this sense, photons are “materializing” causal relationship, making it manifested physically.

Here it is worth taking a break to turn to some aspects of causality.

10.1.1 A few words about causality, events, and determinism

of material structures.

The concept of causality is extremely important, having the fundamental character. It calls for a deep description. Giving this is difficult within the framework of the present work, yet the basic aspects can be highlighted.

Essentially, the cause-and-effect relationship claims it necessary for the full cycle of any given phenomenon to be went through and finished in order to form an event. An event is something which can be comprehended, and which contains information being necessary for forming a new interaction and creating a new event. An event is a complete cycle of changes. It has a form. Any event, as a causal change, makes this cause non-existent. So we can state that the event-cause is going back to the past.

The fact of relatively different frequencies of cyclic processes around us is feeding our feeling that things have different duration. But everything what happens is only cyclical changes from what is known to what is still unknown.

What is in the causal chain between events and what is causal relationship – is the process of change. This is not an object. It cannot be registered. One can register a concrete form only. And each form is always the result of a complete cycle of changes. We can say that an event is that part of a complete cycle of changes in which the boundaries by which we register this event get specified and become pronounced (measurable).

At the basic level of matter, an event is a concentration of energy in wave envelopes of forms, when they obtain the possibility for coordinated (resonant) interaction. This is a concretization of forms – or, essentially, a pronounced transition from the properties of field to the properties of object. Events are a cyclic manifestation of reality.

Thus we infer that the causal chain includes objective, measurable events (those possessing forms) and the process of changes between them. That is, within the framework of this work, this chain is made by successive transitions: space – time – space, high probability – low probability – high probability. Or by transitions: knowledge – loss of knowledge – new knowledge. And these transitions are smooth. We can consider them to be manifestations of a certain field.

That is, knowledge is absent between the events in causal relationship. And it is this loss of knowledge with which we identify time and everything which for us is not real (measurable).

Another important aspect in causal relationship is its regularity. An event cannot give rise to any other, arbitrary event, and equally it cannot result from any such one. An event inevitably contains information about its own cause, for it is only a change related to its preceding event. Therefore, the chain of events cannot be truly random, it is always regular.

The following conclusions can be drawn.

Reality is basically discrete. One can say it has a grainy structure.

Allegorically speaking, the physical reality is a massif of flickering events of different scales of space and time, a pulsating massif of probabilities of cognition.

The grains of reality in the Universe are the elements of the massif of events being infinite in amount, location and quality. But not all sorts of events. This is an infinite massif of the most probable, definite events, regular and interrelated. Even if some events do not possess the ability to be directly interconnected physically when very largely separated in space, they are still connected by their common source.

The Universe is not a type of chaos. It is regular, although not predictable concretely. Its evolution is obeying a general law, through the development of an infinite variety of definite events being permitted by this law.

The definiteness of material structures is inevitable, since at the basic level physical forms are capable of coordinated, and therefore stable, interaction, but only in a strictly definite – not arbitrary – way.

10.2 Photon absorption.

If the photon-emitting process can be imagined, figuratively speaking, as the “wave-envelope unwinding and vortex formation”, then the photon absorption comes as the reverse process – the “vortex winding” on the corresponding wave envelope that is parametrically close to the photon-emitted envelope and correspondingly oriented relative to the direction of photon propagation.

In particular, wave envelopes of atomic nuclei participate in circular revolutions. Therefore each of them can be involved in “electromagnetic interaction”, and hence in the interaction with photons possessing the rotation aspect (Fig. 24).

Fig. 24

Thus we observe that a photon, carrying a concrete amount of geometric information (memory) about its emitted wave envelope, preferably participates in the interaction (being absorbed) with the envelopes having the sets of parameters within a range convenient for interaction.

A photon with its “vortex diameter” larger than the “envelope diameter” shows a relatively low probability of absorption. The probability of absorption is also low in the case of a significant deviation from the optimal planes of rotation of the form’s envelope, in the eigenfrequencies of the photon's oscillations and the frequencies of the wave traveling along the envelope’s surface, in the frequencies of the wave’s envelope rotation and the rotational period of the photon vortex.

The envelope that gained the photon changes its parameters correspondingly to the photon energy. All other things being equal, the envelope becomes more “voluminous”, its “rotation frequency” is changing, and its “area” growing. All the same, the electron interacting with this envelope is changing its “trajectory” for a new one, corresponding to a new energy level.

It appears interesting here to consider the variant of the dimension of Planck’s constant – kg*m2/sec – and, with this, to admit the interpretation the process of the absorption of a photon by a form as the discrete changes of the mass of this form, its “surface” area and its “rotational” velocity in various combinations.

If the wave envelope gains a certain marginal energy packet, then its parameters may change so much that the existing interaction with the electron loses its consistency (optimality). The electron becomes “free” in a certain sense.

10.3 Energy transformation in photon interaction processes.

As we have found, with gaining the photon, the geometric parameters the wave envelope (form) are changing. Its area and “diameter” get predominantly increasing. As well increasing becomes the space of the atom as such, it becomes more voluminous.

As the result of photon absorption, the atomic form takes (gains) more space than it was before.

This leads to more and more active interaction (collision) with the neighboring forms. The temperature of the substance gets increased.

The cooling of a substance is a process going in the opposite order. The “excited” forms are not spectrally convenient for stable oscillations (their spectrum being not sufficiently simple). Therefore they are unstable. Because of this, at some moment the forms are emitting a corresponding photon to regain their previous – more optimal, more stable and compact – set of parameters.

In the light of the present work, the amount of space is characterized by mass. An increase in the space inside the form – increase in its “size” – occurring with the photon absorption, is, among other things, the increase in the mass of this form. Photon emission reduces the amount of space in the form and reduces its mass.

The introduction of the concept of physical form as the basis of matter makes it possible to interpret in the categories of space the process of transformation of one type of energy into other types.

The absorption of a photon by a particle of substance (as a physical form) is the process of transformation of wave energy not only into the energy of oscillations of the form, but also into mass energy. The photon emission is the reverse process.

Thus the photon absorption or emission is accompanied by the transition of wave into form, of time into space, or by the reverse process.

10.4 Evolution of photons.

Thus, the form that has absorbed a photon now contains more space and changes its geometric parameters. In particular, it increases its area and “diameter”.

Sometime later, this form regains (can regain) its previous parameters by emitting a photon. But then this “secondary” photon is not obliged to show exactly those parameters shown by the previously absorbed photon. This secondary photon is now carrying (can carry) information about an already different – other – form, with a larger surface area and less intense – “smoother” – boundary. This secondary photon is predominantly “larger and slower”. Now with the appearance of some conditions convenient for absorption (for example, by an atom of another chemical element), this secondary photon is absorbed again.

We can put it another way. The photon that has transferred the form of a nucleus to an excited state embraces predominantly smaller space than that to be emitted later in the reverse transition. But less likely becomes the opposite case when the form of a nucleus gets excited by a photon of larger diameter compared to the photon emitted at the reverse transition.

That is, any photon is preferably absorbed by a form with its diameter larger than its “spatial” amplitude – but not vice versa (Fig. 25). As a result of repeated absorptions and emissions, the photon gains a higher probability of becoming “larger”. With all this, the frequency of the vortex spiral will become smaller, and the intensity of space condensation (spiral vortex “contrast”) will also decrease; etc. This is how the “cooling" of photons occurs in the processes of their absorption and emission. And also this is observed in practice.

Sooner or later, the absorption-emission process becomes slowed down so much that we can no longer determine it in our time scales. Then a relatively large new form, after capturing a photon, does not re-emit it any further, as if just “swallowing” this relatively small and “insignificant” disturbance. The photon just disappears. But now there is more space in the form. The causal chain translates the wave energy of the “collapsed” boundaries of forms into the mass energy. That is, if we consider the above from a general standpoint, any change (event) violates with higher probability the previous relation between the wave and mass energies towards increasing masses.

This is the effect of Arrow’s action.

Fig. 25

The eventual “absorption” of a photon can be made by any increasingly larger form as long as the dynamics of the photon and the dynamics of the form are consistent. Accordingly, nothing prevents photons from having their frequencies as low as possible. Photons prefer to get redder.

10.5 Some conclusions.

Although our presented model of photon exchange is simplistic, it opens up new approaches to understanding the phenomenon of matter.

1) The concept of physical forms makes it possible to provide a physical (geometric) meaning to the processes of photon emission and absorption, as well as the process of the transfer of radiation energy to mass and vice versa.

2) Photons are carrying not only energy packets, but also information about their sources. This existing information, in its turn, determines the conditions for the subsequent absorption of these photons. That is, the photon physically embodies the causality between the space-time separated events – between the forms’ changes. At the same time, the photon translates the cause into the effect not always, not in any way, but only in the presence of certain geometric conditions, when the wave characteristics are sufficiently consistent. Consequently, matter cannot possess any arbitrary properties. Its properties are definite and regular. Matter is made structural.

3) The photon is evolving. Its absorption is produced predominantly by the increasingly larger forms. And in the process of the subsequent collapse of the photon-absorbing form, it much more likely will emit a larger photon than that which was absorbed. The predominance of such processes of photon absorptions and emissions is an integral part of the one-way evolution of physical forms, which is the evolution of matter from smaller to larger forms. All the emitted photons sooner or later become part of larger forms, thus making space more massive and quiet.

11. Evolution of material Universe.

The concept presented in this paper will not be complete until it is related to the problems of cosmology. These problems basically are: the beginning and the end of time, the spatial boundaries of the Universe, the origin of matter.

11.1 About the “beginning” of the Universe.

The concept of the physical form allows us to describe, consistently and physically, the evolution of matter throughout the entire span from microscopic to cosmological scales.

As it has already been demonstrated (perhaps not very explicitly), in the light of our work:

Time is to be associated with waves, kinetic energy, changeability, diversity, multiplicity, indeterminism.

Space is to be associated with form, mass, state of rest, integrity, concreteness, objectiveness, measurability.

The Universe consists of space dynamics as a single entity. Introducing of any larger number of entities would eventually require an infinite series of justifications, because if the number of entities becomes more than just one, then it principally is no longer limited by any factor.

The direction in which our physical world is developing is determined by Arrow. Essentially, this is the direction from waves to forms, and from difference and motion to integrity and state of rest, and from time to space, and from indeterminism to determinism and cognoscibility, from lower to higher probabilities.

Under the conditional beginning of the material Universe we are to understand the appearance of forms (which we are able to detect), and hence the appearance of space.

What had been before the conditional “beginning” of the material Universe were waves (vortices) and no forms, no matter and thus no space (which could exist in connection with forms only). That was, in our standpoint, the complete predominance of time.

It is also worth noting that time, as a degree of dynamics or indeterminism, is associated with the concept of probability. So the complete predominance of time is also the probability of “anything” with the probability of a concrete “something” tending to zero.

The absence of forms makes it impossible to determine either the location, or the size, or the quantity of anything concrete, because there is no point of reference, no coordinates, no observer. There is nothing objectively existing.

The absence of forms means the complete uncertainty.

It may seem at first glance that the complete uncertainty and the inability to localize objects means the absence of anything, or means nothing existing. However, this is not the case. No present possibility of measurement (cognition) does not mean the absence of the Universe. In this state, the Universe also exists, but it cannot be studied objectively, that is, geometrically. It cannot be measured, cannot be described by numbers and calculated. Yet it exists.

Matter-free universe or time - this is a formless or, literally, an immaterial state. This is an unlimited wave dynamics of a certain single essence. Let us notice once again here that we are talking not about the dynamics of substance, but about the dynamics of metrics. Essentially, we are speaking about the dynamics of sense, because metrics is just sense. And this sort of dynamics is not prohibited by any reason.

Once it has created an oscillating form, this single essence already becomes a concretely limited space within a pronounced oscillating boundary. Here and now a specific point of reference can be chosen, and the possibility of fixing and describing locations becomes real. This is how matter and space originate. This is the stage that can be called, symbolically, the beginning of material Universe.

The “beginning” of the Universe is the occurrence of space and mass within the boundaries of the form.

The beginning of the Universe as a set of limiting physical parameters does not exist. This beginning disappears into uncertainty.

Literally, space is being created out of time.

This only “certainty”, existing in the Universe (whatever it is called specifically), begins to newly acquire its fundamental quality: its measurability and objectiveness, or cognoscibility.

Also important is to understand that the creation of matter does not cancel out the existence of the wave – “immaterial” – part of the Universe that is continuing to be the source of matter. The Universe is space and time together, in every aspect.

The process of the creation of forms from waves, in the general setting, will be considered below, with the description of our world “before the creation” of material Universe. And right here we can describe a particular example of the creation of a physical form from waves in the course of a two-photon interaction.

11.2 An example of the creation of forms from waves.

In this example, photons are considered as waves.

In the framework of this work, photons are representing a three-dimensional vortex, or a “limited” spiral.

If the lines along which two vortices are propagating intersect at a certain angle; if at the moment of intersection these two vortices are rather akin in terms of their amplitudes, spiral pitches and numbers of spiral turns; if the direction of their circulation is opposite; if at the “meeting” moment there is a certain “phase lag” between the turns, – then there appears a non-zero probability for their superposition to produce a form(Fig.26 ).

Fig. 26

It is rather difficult to picture and describe this process. Some spatial imagination is welcomed and required from our reader over here.

Speaking in non-scientific terms, we can say that a boundary of a form, as a closed surface, appears as a result of the “mutual attraction of counter-propagating spiral coils”. It can be phrased that these coils, as spatial density seals, “are evenly spreading and merging with each other in accordance with Arrow’s action, forming some closed surface of the type of an ellipsoid or sphere. This surface is not static: running humps and troughs (wave pulsations) are having place on it. The parameters of these oscillations and rotations depend on the initial conditions of the photon interactions. An elementary form of one of the types appears, and it is more or less stable in time.

This created form acquires some physical velocity, and that is principally less than the speed of light, because its producing photons “are crossing each other” at some angle.

Of course, such a model is an apparent simplification. Yet it demonstrates the fundamental possibility of a form to occur from vortices, the possibility for the creation of a closed surface.

Meanwhile, a photon is a special case of a vortex wave. Forms can also be created in the course of other wave processes.

11.3 Properties of the source of physical matter.

Indeterminism can also be defined as limitlessness, because the boundaries are something which is defined concretely.

Therefore, there is no ground to believe that the world of waves is somehow limited – specifically, in terms of their wave parameters, their number, their possibilities to combine, and their energy.

Correspondingly, there is no ground to believe that the process of the creation of forms from waves must stop at some stage.

In the general sense, the source of our material Universe is limitless.

The process of creation of forms, or of matter, is ongoing, and thus it goes as well at the present moment. The material Universe is being created any time.

The Universe consists of its non-material source and material extension simultaneously.

Each elementary piece of matter had once been made from waves. Yet the reverse process is possible as well. For instance, in the course of changing physical forms, each emitted photon is leaving its home matter and becoming part of the “wave world”, part of indeterminism, in order to be re-created from it and become a piece of matter anew. However, in general, as obeying Arrow, time is irreversibly flowing into space through the creation and the enlargement of many forms and their associations that are being open for objective cognition.

What is taking place is the relative filling of the Universe with space and mass, with which all types of processes are being slowed down, relatively.

11.4 About the age of the Universe.

The problem of the age of material Universe that is known to us is connected with the definition of the “clock” by which to count this age.

The procedure of measuring time as a length of interval, as a mark on the time axis (this is how time is interpreted in science and, broadly, life) is always the counting of the amount of cycles of some characteristic periodic process in a particular region of space and time on a particular scale. And, what is important here, each period of this sort of processes is an equivalent part of the history of the Universe, an event which is equal in its causal significance, to all other events in all other areas of space and time.

Each space-time area possesses its own periodical processes. We will call them “local clocks”.

All local clocks are equvalent. There is no ground to prefer any one of them as the particular, true clock.

A cognizing subject cannot be located in cognizable areas of the Universe. He is an outside observer relative to all areas of the Universe. And every outside observer is using his own watch.

In other words, the age of any area of space and time of the Universe is relative.

On our (human) scale, typical periodic processes are those like heart beatings or like the axial rotation of our planet.

However, the age of a given area can also be calculated by an outside observer’s clock, and not only by the local clock, which is located there and then, where and when this real age is measured. In other words, age is relative.

On our scale, things like heart beatings or, say, Earth’s axial rotation are typical periodic processes.

In our point of view, time is characteristically prevailing over space in the “early” Universe. This means that the “early” forms contain extremely little space (mass) and very much time (changeability). Relative to our scales of time and space, the “early” Universe represents an extremely fast (with a very short period) wave dynamics of the forms of very small spatial dimensions and very low masses. This sort of dynamics is a typical periodic process in the “early” Universe. And this is the process that is to be taken to serving a local clock for the “early” Universe.

The closer to the “beginning” of the Universe the local clocks are, the higher is the dynamics, and the more cycles these clocks perform comparatively to one cycle of our clock. And the larger (tending to infinity) becomes the total accumulated number of cycles of these local clocks (covering the entire period from the “beginning” of the Universe to our present days).

The assumption that the number of the cycles of any local clocks is finite (such a temptation is well present) would mean admitting the idea that an “initial” periodical process is created from “nothing”. Such an assumption does not make sense because of the infinitely large amount of options for the length of the processes like this.

Thus we are arriving at understanding that the creation and evolution of the Universe is accompanied by a nonlinear process of its “filling with local time, or with history”. And the closer we are to the “beginning”, the higher is this fullness. And it tends to infinity.

Any attempt to measure the total age of the Universe by a local clock is only to lead to infinity.

If one measures the age of the Universe by the clock of an outside observer (our clocks), then in the course of approaching its beginning, an increasing number of cycles of local clocks will fit into one cycle of our clocks – a yet larger part of the “history” of the Universe – because each cycle of the local clock is an equivalent characteristic part of history. Such an approach to the “beginning” leads to increasing errors of measuring the “size of the local history”. And, again, this error will also tend to grow infinitely, and the result of measurements becoming indefinite.

The attempts to measure the age of the Universe by our clocks can lead to nothing but indefiniteness.

In other words, determinations of the beginning of the Universe do not make sense. Because they mean an attempt to establish the boundary where it is principally impossible to do this: the boundary between concreteness and indefiniteness, between causality and its absence, between space and time.

Does the Universe have its ending in time?

Arrow translates time into space. According to our current concepts, sometime in the future there will be very little time and very much space. This looks like if the forms will be evolving to become larger, slower and more massive, thus losing the intensity of their boundaries relative to our senses of perception and measuring instruments.

In the distant future, local clocks will accommodate in one cycle (beat) a very large amount of cycles of our clocks. With this, the local clock will turn to be very massive. But this will in no way bother the bearer of this clock, living in such a world, because he himself will be inserted in the corresponding space-time scales. And this trend will continue with any more attempt to look farther and farther into the future.

As long as we look infinitely farther into the future, we are losing the possibility of making predictions and the possibility of verify them. This is because our cycle of cognition becomes elusively small compared to the scale of events in that remote future.

Determinations of the time of the end of the Universe do not make sense because of the unlimited growth of differences occurring in the readings of our clocks and of the local clocks of the future observer, and also due to the differences in the spatial dimensions of events “Now” and “Then” in the “pre-final” future.

We conclude therefore that, on the one hand, the situations with the beginning and the end of the Universe are opposite, whereas, on the other hand, they are common as to the fact that the meaning of their definition gets lost. In both cases, we are losing the possibility of fixing concrete events, thus losing causality: we lose the possibility of cognition.

11.5 About the Big Bang hypothesis.

The state of the Universe “without matter”, which is a complete indefiniteness, can indeed be considered a “point”, because any measurable extensions are absent, because space itself is absent. However, a literal view of such a point-like Universe requires the presence of an observer which is external to it. Such considerations are illusory. They arise because the human mind tends to view everything existing as objects external to it.

Unlike the Big Bang hypothesis, in which space and matter are arising from some area (surrounded by what is inexplicable), there is in our present model not a quantitative, but a qualitative transition from some properties of “being” to others (from time to space). Therefore, there is no need to place all the matter of the Universe into a point, thus forming a kind of singularity. There is no need to explain the origin of not only matter but also space, because matter and space are essentially the one thing.

The Universe has always existed. The Universe demonstrates an ongoing process of the transition of waves into matter, the transition of time into space. Essentially, matter has always existed, also, but in the forms which we have no possibility to determine – because of the tending to infinity difference between the space-time scales of a local observer from the very distant past and our space-time scales.

Matter was “absent once upon a time” only for us as we are.

As it was discussed already, this process of the creation of matter continues on at the present moment as well, in any space area that can be considered. That is, the beginning of the Universe can be “observed” not only somewhere very far away, not only in the very distant past. This is an ongoing process; it was underway, always and everywhere, it goes on here and now.

The Universe did not have its beginning, it is continuously changing its quality in the way from waves to spatial forms.

As well, the observer is changing along with the Universe, and this process is endless, having no limit, no boundaries: they are not definable. It is not easy to accept this. Because our mind is able to operate with only what has boundaries. Our mind operates with forms. Our mind is material.

Some readers may ask: had there been anything before the world of waves?

This question does not make sense, since the wave world without space does not have any reference points either in space or in time. As well, the notions “before” and “after" are not applicable there.

11.6 About space that we perceive as matter and as extension.

Every macroscopic material object is a superposition of a huge amount of forms. These forms, in turn, constitute the increasingly extended spatial forms – superpositions with increasingly less intense boundaries. And each of these forms gets located within the space of even larger forms. This is how the Universe is being filled with space that we perceive as extension.

This type of space is not matter in our understanding. Nonetheless, it is still the same unique entity in the Universe. But it is in the dynamical processes so “weak and slow” that this dynamics cannot be registered by us. We perceive this space as emptiness and extension since we are lacking the possibility to register this dynamics.

Space, like matter, is something which is enclosed in our defined forms of different size and complexity. Such forms exist based on the consistent and extremely intense (from our point of view) dynamics of space density.

Space as extension is a part of space that is showing the “weak and slow" (i.e. not intense) dynamics. This part can be defined as extension only.

Of course, this division of space into two parts is a simplification. There is no absolute state of rest. The space of extensions around us always and everywhere contains disturbances of its metric – those, for instance, from the motions of celestial bodies, from the processes of creation and decay of nuclei, atoms, molecules. However, such disturbances are not registered by us and they do not have any noticeable impact on our everyday life.

Therefore, on the scales of the quantum world, where time is prevailing, we do not have “enough time” to make measurements, so that the notion of distance is practically not applicable there. On the scales of the macrocosm, where space is prevailing, our instruments do not respond to the spectrum of most slow and extended changes.

Namely this serves the main reason dividing nature into mass-defined matter and extension-defined space.

11.7 About matter and extension from the standpoint of cognition.

The act of cognition is an interaction (event, fact).

The interaction occurs in a cycle.

When cognizing space as matter during one typical cycle of “our” clocks (a second, a year, man’s lifetime), there occur microcosmic events in the amount tending to infinity. That is – when cognizing matter, the observer’s potential of cognition is infinite.

When cognizing space as extension, no changes can be registered even in the largest cycle of the observer's clock.

In this case, the endless possibility of cognition is realized through the infinite number of possible locations of the observer (through the infinite number of observers). Each observer will have his own, different opinion about the Universe. And there can be infinitely many opinions of this sort.

The observer's perception of extension is the perception of its immutability when its relative location changes.

Therefore, the Universe as matter and the Universe as extension represents an infinitely large potential of cognition.

Of all possible purposes (reasons) for the existence of the Universe, the possibility and the process of its cognition are the most natural purpose and reason. Because cognition is an act of interaction, is the creation of the new.

With this, all events in the Universe are interactions creating new consequences. The course of the causal filling of the Universe is no different from the process of its cognition.

11.8 About dark matter.

Arrow’s action through the creation, unification and enlargement of forms is leading to the appearance (accumulation) of a relatively calm space. It is this calm space that we consider to be the “arena of events" or extension. This space possesses its own “density”. This density is characterized by a certain current level, or physical constant. And this density corresponds to the current state of the evolution of the Universe, or to “accumulation” of space.

As we have already mentioned, an “amount” of space (as the only essence of the Universe) can be characterized by a mass.

The whole space has its mass, and not only that part of it which is organized into a consistent dynamics of forms in the material bodies – that is, into matter.

The space, which we consider to be an extension or an arena of events, also has its mass.

Dark matter is a relatively calm space of extension created in the course of evolution of forms and having a certain mass.

The space of extension is the most objective thing existing in the Universe. It is most free from time – from the carrier of variability and indeterminism. Thus it is the most recognizable. And it really is so. Three dimensions of extension are sufficient for us to be able to cognize it.

However, a completely calm space is an idealization. It continues on to evolve, to “thicken and calm down”, experiencing ever lower and lower-frequency and less intense fluctuations (relative to our scales). This calm space is increasing its density as the Universe is evolving. And this process is really boundless.

11.9 About the phenomenon of black holes.

The space-time scales of the dynamics of the space of extension are so large when compared to our senses and instruments that they are not registered in practice. In the case of oscillations of the “pure” space surrounding us, we are dealing with the lowest-frequency part of the dynamics of the Universe. That is, the Universe can be represented as an oscillatory medium.

In such an oscillatory medium, extremely intense, resonant pulsations can periodically occur (in time and space), in one or another space-time diapason.

In the light of what has been said, it becomes reasonable to define the phenomenon of a black hole as a very massive and intense (contrasting) pulsation of space density. At the same time, the length of the cycle of this pulsation significantly exceeds the capabilities of our measurements. We can suggest the following definition to the phenomenon of a black hole:

A black hole is an extreme, in its scale, pulsation of space density.

For us, such a pulsation is, essentially, a large amount of space in a relatively small observable volume. Accordingly, it can reveal but very few dynamics and few space-density differences. This is an area of rest.

A popular question is about what is to happen to a certain object falling into a black hole. Above all, in our point of view, it will lose its shape as losing the intensity and sharpness of its boundaries. The boundaries of such an object will be “stretched” over a very large space. That is, any pronounced differences cannot be manifested in this area. The local clock associated with the subject will almost stop, from our point of view. Of course, the clock itself as an object will not be able to exist there, also, as being devoid of the form. There cannot be any forms inside a black hole, because no boundaries can be there. For us, those boundaries are indistinguishable.

The absence of emission from a black hole is a consequence of the fact that this object does not contain oscillations of a sufficiently high frequency, for them to be detected by our instruments. Such a concentration of space (rest) does not allow any “fast” processes to exist.

The above representation of the black hole phenomenon does not contain singularities and can be represented physically.

In the macrocosm around us, we are open to assume many areas where large-scale space-density pulsations of very long cycles can exist. They can be not so extreme (intense) as for the black hole phenomenon, thus having to become weaker in their manifestation. Such pulsations can be found in any clusters of matter. Any area of enhanced gravity and the so called black holes are inhomogeneities with the same nature, but different intensity and scale.

It is quite appropriate to call such inhomogeneities thickenings of “dark matter”. What is important is that such thickenings have a periodic character in time and space. These are wave processes.

Any large celestial body can also contain, among other oscillations, an extremely low-frequency oscillation (pulsation) of space density in the form of a compact, very massive region located in its center.

In particular, if we assume the existence of such regions in the centers of stars, we will have to conclude about relatively low temperatures of these regions – because all the processes inside them will be slowed down significantly.

The existence of compact and massive space-density pulsations in the celestial bodies can also generate around these bodies some decreasing series of spherical oscillations. Such oscillations can manifest themselves as one or more “envelopes” made by the condensed space in the vicinity of a celestial body (here an analogy with an elementary form suggests itself). Then these envelopes can be registered through the presence of a certain structure of the concentration of matter around the celestial body.

It is also interesting to note that relatively low-frequency pulsations can be the primary cause of heterogeneity in the concentration of matter in the “early Universe”.

If there exist the large-scale pulsations (oscillations) of the space density, then not only the “thickenings" of space are inevitable, but also the reverse processes. These may be the areas of “empty” space that we observe.

Such rarefaction regions on a cosmic scale can look like intergalactic voids. And if we consider as a whole the structure of the visible Universe, then it can be represented as an alternation (oscillation) of global densifications and rarefactions of space, within which there are similar pulsating structures of a smaller scale.

The observed pattern of the distribution of matter in the macrocosm can be interpreted as the current state of the oscillating medium in the scales of observations that are available to us.

11.10 About dark energy.

The creation of the particles as spatial forms occurs everywhere and every time. The beginning of the Universe is not a point in the past, but an ongoing process. This means that for any observer, the amount of space between him and any object is constantly increasing. And the farther the object is from the observer, the more space is being created between them per unit of the observer’s time. That is, the observed objects are removing away at an increasing rate.

The dark energy phenomenon is the process of the creation of forms from waves. This is a process of the ongoing creation of space.

It is observed as inflation of the Universe.

The relatively later Universe contains more space (its metric is different) and creates relatively larger forms. Therefore, the rate of expansion of the Universe changes nonlinearly with the change in the measurement distance for any observer.

11.11. Qualitative evolution of the Universe

The Universe is changing. Not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively. Space is becoming more dense, and more space is occurring.

This will be leading to a change in stable (consistent) relationships of the spatial wave parameters of the forms that are constituting nuclei, atoms, and molecules. The underlying reason is that linear changes in the metrics of space are leading to nonlinear changes in the relationships of mutual rotations and oscillations (swings) of the forms. And these changes bring about a new set of parameters for more consistent interactions. And this happens periodically.

Accordingly, the chemical and physical properties of atoms and molecules will be changing periodically relative to those that are being observed now. New substances will appear. In the course of evolution of the Universe, the entire presence of nature will be changing periodically relative to what is being observed now.

The Universe is changing not only quantitatively (on a large scale), but also qualitatively.

The Universe must consistently be experiencing certain periods, which are characterized by a certain set of properties of matter. And there are no restrictions for this process of changes. In a sense, this can be regarded as periodic and non-recurring transitions from one Universe to another. And, of course, it is impossible to determine the boundary of such crossings. One can only compare the opinions about the Universe received by the observers located very distantly from each other. Yet such a possibility exists only theoretically.

The currently observed picture of the Universe, ranging from its earliest manifestations being open for observations, probably refers to one specific period.

The future observer will not be able to assess the qualitative changes in the Universe in the absence of some base of comparison with the past Universe (the instruments for cognition will have been changed as well). And for today’s observer, the qualitative changes that matter will undergo are unpredictable.

In general, this situation gives rise to optimism. Because the unpredictable qualitative changes in the relationship of the future observer with his surrounding Universe will make the process of cognition unstoppable.

On the one hand, the Universe, when moving away from “here and now” in time and space, flows into indefiniteness, that is, it stops the process of cognition. In the past, this uncertainty was due to the predominance of dynamics, while in the future, it is to be due to lacking dynamics.

On the other hand, the approaching of the local observer to these boundaries opens up a whole new qualitative variety of possible states of the Universe, and thus it makes the process of cognition endless.

11.12. About some physical phenomena, additionally.

To further illustrate that the properties of matter are determined by the properties of physical forms, it is interesting to consider some physical phenomena from the standpoint of physical form.

11.12.1 Resistance of forms to the change of their location in space.

The existing idea of this does not give any understanding of its physical essence.

The manifestation of inertia is usually associated with the behavior of macroscopic material bodies. But material bodies are a collection of a large number of physical forms. In accordance with the ideas of this work, the resistance of material bodies to changes in space is determined by the properties of physical forms.

Fig. 27 shows a situation where an external influence is produced on a form of the microcosm (for example, on the form of a molecule).

Such an effect changes the spatial conditions of stable fluctuations of form, taking them out of the optimal range (thus complicating the spectrum of oscillations).

The wave system (the form’s boundary) “resists” external influences and strives to return to its optimal state by shifting its boundaries in space. The displacement occurs in the spatial direction where there is less resistance.

Fig. 27

When an external influence is exerted on a material macroscopic object, a large number of forms are affected. Their reaction is summed up and expressed in the movement of the object with acceleration.

The need for a certain period of time (and this is the essence of everything happening) for a particular change in the position of an object follows from the need for a certain number of cycles of oscillation of each form to restore the previous conditions of oscillation to one degree or another.

The restoration of optimal conditions of oscillation can also be considered as a desire to return to the simplest possible spectrum of these oscillations. This is how the Arrow's action manifests itself – as the elimination of multiplicity, difference, and resistance to changes.

11.12.2 Physical form of an antiparticle.

The boundary of the physical form is a pronounced condensation of space as a result of a stable (resonant) wave process. Also, nothing prohibits the formation of a boundary from a distinctly low density of space.

Figure 28 shows the cross section of the boundary of the forms of a particle and an antiparticle. For an antiparticle, the form’s boundary appears less stable. The Arrow’s action (Fig.4) is aimed at eliminating the existing pronounced difference. Therefore, this action tends to eliminate the antiparticle boundary, unlike in the case of the boundary of a “normal” particle. For this reason, the lifetime of antiparticles is relatively short. And this is the reason why there is a baryon asymmetry in the Universe.

Fig. 28

The annihilation of a particle and an antiparticle occurs as follows:

When the sections of the boundaries of a particle and an antiparticle are only coming to interaction, they do not “merge” smoothly, as in the case of two particles (Fig.1d). They are rapidly absorbed by each other (Fig. 33). This leads to the destruction of both interacting boundaries. Annihilation is accompanied by the transfer of the energy of the particle mass into limited vortex perturbations that are emitted. The finiteness of the vortex perturbation (photon) is determined by the fact that annihilation does not occur instantly, but in a certain cycle. The annihilation process is similar to the emission of a photon when one of the wave envelopes of the form collapses.

The difference between a particle and an antiparticle is determined by the difference in the distribution of masses (space density) in the region of their boundaries. Such a difference can be associated with a relative phase shift of the oscillations forming the boundaries.

Fig. 29

Of course, the question arises about the causes of the creation of antiparticles, about the differences in the initial conditions of the creation of particles and antiparticles. It can be assumed that the difference in the initial conditions is the different ratio of the directions of rotation of spiral vortices at the birth of particles and antiparticles (see Fig. 24). Some more attention will be paid to this issue below.

11.12.3 About light pressure.

The currently available justification for the pressure of light on macroscopic material bodies is rather mathematical.

The concept of the physical form allows us to explain the pressure of light in a physically imaginable way.

When a photon is absorbed by the form of an atom, the spatial size of this form increases (Chapts 10.1, 10.2). That is, an additional space is produced from the side of the material body facing the light source. The body receives an impulse of movement. There occurs a process of photon energy transmission into space.

12. Non-material part of the Universe.

There is nothing in the Universe but the dynamics of a certain single essence. When this essence is enclosed in a relatively large and calm form, this is perceived by us as a space of extension. When the form is relatively small and reveals an intense wave dynamics, it gets perceived by us as a particle of matter.

When the wave dynamics possesses no form but is manifested as a propagating wave, the corresponding phenomenon can be specifically called “pure time”.

In all cases and situations, time is an integral part of what exists – while to varying degrees, though.

The significant predominance of time or the complete absence of space – in our viewpoint – is right what we have arrived to term the “conditional beginning” of the material Universe.

What “pure” time is and how the material Universe is being created from it – this will be discussed in this chapter. The difficulty of such an approach and description is that time is not material. It cannot be presented and described quantitatively. And it cannot be described as something separate, self-contained. It principally represents quality. Quality of dynamics, of changeability, of cyclicity and multiplicity.

It is this aspect of the Universe that determines the creation of matter, its ever-changing – and current – appearance, and its evolution. This is why the description of a possible structure of what can be termed a “universe without matter” becomes an extremely interesting task, and chance.

We will represent below a model of such a wave – or non-material – Universe, which is an important part of the entire concept of the present work and which is consistently related to what we really observe now.

12.1 Structure of the source of the Universe.

Why is our Universe three-dimensional?

The Universe exists as evolving in motion, in change. It is specified essentially feature by a changing array of events that are happening and can be registered. Any such event is a product of its causes in interaction. And this product – effect – is always getting different from those causes. That is, the essential feature of the Universe is not just change, but also creation of something new.

In a two-dimensional universe, the effects (consequences) can, sooner or later, take the place of their causes, because they have the same “quality” as their causes (they are located in the same plane). This situation denies evolution.

A three-dimensional universe allows the effects (consequences) to avoid any “intersections” with their causes in one and the same quality, thus opening the doors for evolution.

On the other hand, should the number of dimensions of a universe be any greater than three, this extension would be excessive. Our Nature has got its “most economical” arrangement, in conformity with the fundamental principle of necessity and sufficiency.

There is another important consideration in this regard. The observer is an inseparable part of the nature. Therefore, if the observer (human) is unable to form any physical picture of a phenomenon to his interest, then it only means this phenomenon really does not exist. Here, reality is to be understood as what is objectiveness – that is, what has a form.

Therefore, the space of the Universe is three-dimensional.

Another characteristic feature of the Universe is that it has no particular (selected) part and direction, all its parts and directions are equivalent. If this is not the case, then in order to allocate any part or direction in the Universe one has to have its initial conditions (causes) been established. Furthermore, the knowledge of any initial conditions – once available (none have been found so far) – would be signaling, urging us that now “more initial” conditions are required to be established. And thus so on, infinitely.

As we have mentioned just above, Universe is time. But time is waves. Then what sort of waves might be taken as agents to appear and represent time in matter-free Universe?

To ensure equal properties in all directions (which is isotropy), a necessary and sufficient condition for the propagation of anything is the spiral movement.

The spiral curves have an axial line that determines the direction of spiral propagation. Because all directions are equivalent, the spirals cannot propagate in a straight line. The axial line of a spiral must be spiral itself, as well. And on, such filling with the generations of spirals must be reproduced (repeated) endlessly (Fig. 30).

Fig. 30

Such structure allows us to “fill” the Universe evenly with movement (perturbation), and thus with time, thus allowing us to “fill” it evenly with the probability of interaction. Thus what concretely is propagating?

A propagating spiral wave is to be understood as propagation (perturbation) of metrics, or of density, of Universe’s only essence – space. There is nothing else in the Universe.

Here a question comes: how can we talk and judge about propagation in a three-dimensional space in the absence of space as such?

Of course, it makes sense to talk about the spatial structure of anything when it is possible to adopt a reference system, and any such system can be present only in relation to some concrete form (object). But the absolute absence of forms is an idealistic case that cannot be realized in reality (see Chapt. 11). As we have seen, the limits of the forms in their scale cannot be determined unambiguously, they are relative. Therefore, our description of a matter-free universe – consisting solely of time – gets relative, either. A matter-free universe is a universe containing the forms that we are unable to register (to interact with).

Such an idealized matter-free universe never existed. At any time, the universe contained some space of extension, although of much lower density than now. In our viewpoint, this density is getting smaller and tends to zero, and thus the volume of such a universe is shrinking to a point.

Thus the matter-free universe – or time – possesses a common single structure over any area of space and time in the Universe.

This ensures equal conditions for the creation of matter, and hence equal laws of its evolution.

It should be noticed that the principle of inseparability of space and time is underlying the spiral movement. The path traveled is to be associated with space, or thus with quantity, and the direction (or the rotation of the coordinate system) is to be associated with time, or with quality.

Time indicates the path of space propagation. The quality is being “filled” with the quantity. At the end of the spiral cycle, the quantity (path traveled) makes a new (and opposite) quality (direction). The number of rotation cycles determines the numerical consideration of time.

Such a representation of the source of the Universe determines the following principles of the evolution of the Universe: any interaction is occurring in a cycle, any interaction is based on the opposites, or symmetries.

The above arguments (Chapt. 12.1) may appear to be non-physical and useless. But conversely, they can become the basis for a deeper insight in the understanding of what is generally happening.

In what follows here, a picture of the spiral propagation of the perturbation of metrics is simply called “spiral”. With this, spirals of different scales are coming to be called “different generations of spirals”.

12.2 Integrity and boundlessness of the source of the Universe.

At first glance, it may appear that when moving along the structure of the generations of spirals towards the “source” of the Universe, one can arrive at a certain beginning, or a certain conditional point, where there exists nothing. But this is not the case.

If we consider these structures of any scale, including those infinitely remote in scale from our consideration, then we see that the structures do not change in any way. All the scales are equivalent as for the possibility of existence. At least, there is no prohibition on this. One can put it another way: time is not measurable in terms of space.

Thus the structure of time is produced by a single and boundless source. In other words, this source has no beginning. And it is endless as well.

It is interesting to note that the unity and the limitlessness of the source of the Universe do not only mean that this source is unattainable. This unattainability should also be understood as the impossibility of knowing this source. Because if the unity is in fact, there is no way of comparison with anything else. Also, unity means the absence of an external observer. Any observer is always inside. What is unique is not an object.

Are there any energy constraints for the Universe?

Time is waves. They carry energy that depends on their frequency and scale (“amplitude”). Moving away towards the “source” of time structure, one finds the relative spatial scale of waves that form this structure getting smaller. Yet all the same, their frequencies are getting higher. Therefore, one cannot say that when moving away towards the source, the wave energy will be tending to zero.

When moving ahead in time from the “source” of the structure, the wave frequencies are dropping. But at the same time, the relative spatial scales of these waves are growing. Therefore, it is not correct to say that the energy of the source will ever disappear in the expanding space.

The source of the Universe as well as the entire future Universe are energetically not confined.

12.3 The principle of creation of material forms.

In the (relative) absence of forms, we are turning to understand movement as spiral propagation of some essential parameter of metrics (its perturbation, condensation), or of some condensation of the existing essence (space). This essence in the absence of forms is simply wave dynamics.

Because the spiral turns represent an area of a relatively fuller rest (higher density of metrics), or an area of higher gravity, they are experiencing Arrow’s action (Fig. 4). This action becomes more and more evident as some certain spirals fragments are getting closer to each other.

Fig. 31 displays the case when two spiral fragments with opposite directions of rotation, the two belonging to their common generation (of one scale), get together in one area and make some partial “intersection”.

Fig. 31

By analogy with the above considered case of the creation of a form from photons (Chapt. 11.2), such an intersection can with some probability produce a form. The spiral turns are “spreading out” affected by mutual attraction to make a closed surface. All parameters of the created form – and the probability itself of the creation of this form – are determined by the parameters of the spirals and by their mutual positions.

In the case of the photons, the bounds of the form are determined by the bounds of these photons.

In the case of the spiral structure, the bounds of the form are determined by the bounds of the area of spiral intersection, since both intersecting (interacting) spirals are part of some more extended, next-level spirals.

Of course, the above model of the creation of forms is rather primitive. It is just to demonstrate the principle of how a closed surface (form) is produced.

12.4 Structure of time as basis for the structure of the Universe.

The present structure of the wave Universe, considered in Chapt. 12.1, determines the presence of the structure in the material world.

Forms are produced by some certain generations of spiral waves, and not by any possible spirals. Therefore, in the formation (quantization) of elementary forms, there is identity and periodicity in scales. Only some certain, particular forms get thus created, not any. And this is true for any region of the Universe.

A common “structure of time” is the essential cause of the identical properties of elementary forms in the Universe, the cause of quantization of their parameters, the cause of the observed certainty (structurality) in the conditions of the infinite number of possibilities.

The structure of time can also be called the structure of probabilities. This structure is basically symmetrical, and therefore it determines not only the probabilities of events, but also the manifestation of the symmetries.

12.5 The Universe: continuous or discrete?

The cyclic (wave) dynamics of the structure of time determines the cyclic dynamics of forms (rotation, oscillation) and thus the fact that any interaction of forms occurs within a certain cycle.

A material event is the completion of a full cycle of the form’s changing. That is, the occurrence of an event requires a period (cycle) of time.

Now if we consider the microcosm, quantum world, then we are coming to see that all events in that world are “quantized in time”. This essentially means that an event can only be registered cyclically, when a new form gets created. What is occurring in the interval between events cannot be determined, it is not any objective reality, it is a change, it is a “period of time” – a period of ignorance. This period between events is, in fact, a causal relationship. This relationship is not a form (not a carrier particle), it is a process of change. It is time.

In this regard, it is worth paying attention to the fact that measurement (interaction) already produces a new form, which is different from the one that was before. Time changes forms.

Thus, the structure of time determines the structure of causal relationships and of events at the basic level of matter. This means that it determines the structure and the regulations of the Universe as a whole.

In particular, the structure of time makes it possible to determine the units (portions) of measurement, it gives rise to the notion of a number and to the possibility of a numerical description; it fundamentally defines the reality available to us by our perceptions as an entire multitude of events (numbers) on all their space-time scales.

The Universe is in ongoing evolution, yet it is discrete in the cognition (in interaction), because what is open to our cognition is only concrete, particular forms and phases of evolutionary cycles. This also applies to our instruments of cognition – in particular, to mathematics. Any mathematical result (which in fact is an event, a form) is a specific massif of numbers. A mathematical action, once “stopped at an arbitrary moment”, does not make sense, does not provide any new knowledge. This is a phase of time.

The structure of time does not allow the existence of any arbitrary forms and laws of their interaction. They are defined specifically (probabilistically). The structure of time does not allow any chaos and thus only defines a specific form of cognition. That is why the result of cognition is also discrete (has a specific form).

The space-time of the Universe (or what is in fact) is continuous. But the objective, knowable Universe (or reality) is a pulsating array of certain, most probable events against the background of what is, to varying degrees, unknowable.

Of course, this applies not only to the quantum world. Everything objective has a completed form and a cycle of existence. In our viewpoint, with increasing scales of space and time, the cycle of the creation of a form (event) becomes longer; this cycle becomes dependent on an ever greater amount of interactions (causes) of different scales and degrees of influence; the boundaries of forms (events) become less sharp and intense; the results of cognition become more and more variant, there appears more and more possibilities for different interpretations of the result.

Nonetheless, the very principle of the formation of objective reality does not change. Reality is the wave dynamics of arrays of the most probable events on any space-time scales.

12.6 Evolution of generations of forms.

With the creation of forms, space of extensions is being created. Forms are being created any time. The “density” of space extension is growing, and space is becoming larger (its metric changes). There “arise” (and begin to have a noticeable impact) larger and larger spirals of the wave part of the Universe (spirals of further generations). There is a growing probability of detecting the forms of further generations (forms are being created by all spiral generations).

The boundaries of next-generation forms (relative to those forming visible matter) are less sharp and intense and they are less likely to be detected. However, with some probability, they still can be registered – for instance, when conditioned by an experiment.

Such “next-generation” particles turn out to be unstable due to the relatively less intense boundaries.

However, nothing prohibits the “next-generation” particles, as well as the ordinary particles, from being combined into structures and objects. Within the objects, the boundaries of these forms are coming into interaction and changing, becoming more stable. The interacting boundary becomes part of a larger wave system, part of a general resonant phenomenon, and the energy of the entire system keeps the boundaries of each of the forms in a stable – optimal for the system – state. A good example is given by the differences in the stability of a free-state neutron and that inside a nucleus.

Thus, it is possible to assume the stable existence of structures made from the “next-generation” particles. With that, they will be quite physical. Interaction with them will be weakly manifested due to the relatively small intensity of their boundaries. Or otherwise, the mass of such objects is much less concentrated in the space they “occupy” than the mass in the objects we observe. Nevertheless, interactions with such structures must occur, because all physical forms are fundamentally organized in the same way. We can call such types of structures as “not entirely material”.

In practice, these sorts of interactions can manifest themselves at different scales as some unidentified influences on both natural and artificial processes. As a rule, such influences are characterized by a relatively weak impact on the surrounding matter and by their unpredictability.

The complexity of classifying and predicting such influences is also due to the fact that they may contain forms which possess new qualities, not corresponding to already known patterns (see Chapt. 11.11).

Also, in the above connection, we can propose a hypothesis about the source of the relic emission:

The structure of time create the forms on different scales. They can decay. The decay of the form is accompanied by emission. The emission produced by the decaying forms can be recorded and interpreted as a relic. The relatively narrow frequency band of the relic emission can be explained by the following: lower-frequency radiation is relatively weakly manifested due to the relatively weak contrast of the boundaries of larger decaying forms. Higher-frequency emission is less intense, because the corresponding (smaller-size) forms are relatively more stable due to a higher contrast of their boundaries and because these forms do not decay so intensively.

If the above said about the possible nature of the relic emission is true, then its source is not on the far outskirts of the Universe. Then it is everywhere around us.

12.7 Time structure and movement.

In addition to the relatively calm space of extensions, the Universe contains the spirals of time and the matter, which are different organizations of the dynamics of the density of space (metrics). This dynamic represents a combination of condensations in the spiral form and those made by the boundaries of different forms.

In the quantum world, the level (intensity) of space densifications is comparatively very high. A significant (or even predominant) part of space, when it is considered on the quantum scale, is located within these condensations. And it is important here to understand the following:

Movement occurs where there is space.

The structure of time and the presence of forms make the space principally nonlinear. On the quantum scale, manifestations of this are evident. In this world, the trajectories of movement are just different combinations of spirals and oscillations. In any case, the movement of an object at the quantum level has the wave character. In other words, a quantum object acquires, for an external observer, wave properties.

Thus – on the quantum scale – space possesses a very intense wave structure. That is why the movement of the object on this scale occurs in accordance with this structure. The object moves in the direction where more space is revealed. The appearance of space (new direction) is a change – that is, time.

It can be formulated that the path length is determined by space, and the direction is determined by time. The path length is growing, the direction is always changing, and an accumulation of space and time is produced, an accumulation of the probability of interaction (event).

In a sense, the above presented structuralism can be judged as space-time quantization. This means that an object can be detected in time periodically in a specific, concrete part of structure, as well as an object can be located at a certain moment in any part of a periodically repeating spatial structure.

In this case, the quantum of space can be associated with the geometry of the “minimally defined” spiral of time (for example, with its “diameter”, with inter-arm distances). A spiral like this can produce a form (particle) of minimal space volume and mass. Such a particle can be perceived as an initial “brick” of the universe. At least for this level of development of experiment.

But what can be a quantum of time in this case? Here is only one possible answer: a quantum of time is a full cycle period in the change of the direction of movement along the “minimally defined” spiral (there occurs a complete revolution of the coordinate system connected with an object). This means one full revolution of the time spiral. One can relate this period to a minimal “delay” (lag) between the cause and its effect.

The structure of time determines (affects) the movement of an object. The opposite is also true. The presence and movement of forms (objects), in turn, affects the structure of time to varying degrees on different scales, it creates some heterogeneity, or “disturbance”, of this structure.

In particular, in the case of the well-known two-slit experiment, a moving particle can create a perturbation of the time structure that propagates “through the screen” and is present in the target area simultaneously with the particle. The perturbation and the particle affect each other in this target area. This causes the interference of the probabilities of the target-particle interaction.

This situation can be presented in another way. The structure of time acquires some disturbance (interference) when interacting with the slits and it further determines the probability distribution of the target-particle interaction.

Once again, it is worth noting that the “spirals of time” (or space) are not real lines. This is the structure of space condensations. With this, each “spiral line” consists of a smaller scale spiral (see Chapt. 12.1). This determines the possibility of “frequency and phase matching” of the various spiral sections and forms’ boundaries at different scales, depending on their current mutual orientation. That is why these areas can attract or repel when approaching in different regions of space-time.

It should also be reminded that the concept of this work does not assume limiting the scales for the consideration of the Universe, and thus of time structure as well. All scales exist equivalently, yet they have different possibilities to be considered (included).

In the light of what has been said in this paragraph, it is also interesting to assess the prospect of using the gravity theory to describe the motion of an object (particle) in conditions of the alleged presence of the time structure.

Any model that is proposed to describe the world must contain the most important thing – the possibility and the necessity of development.

In the well-known Einstein equation, its spatial and material parts are equivalent in causality. However, the Universe has a source, and causality is always directed.

The spatial part of Einstein’s equation must have a reason not only from the side of its material part. The components of the metric tensor need to be predetermined by the source. And this definition must have a developing, wave character. In this case, the equation can acquire its direction and become active.

12.8 The goal of the time structure. About the present “moment”.

The source and the cause of motion in the quantum world is the dynamics (“propagation") of the structure of time.

The Universe is evolving at its basic level due to this continuous movement (change). The spirals of time “provide” space for movement and, what’s more, they themselves are in the dynamics of propagation.

For the process of propagation of the considered generations of spirals, it is fundamentally important that the direction of propagation at each point does not repeat any previous direction.

When the number of generations of spirals tends to infinity, the number of the realized directions also tends to infinity.

Each direction of propagation – at each point of the spiral – is unique, each current direction is new. This creates the conditions for any object moving through the structure of time (thus interacting with time-structure) to have a non-repeating (always new) orientation of its own coordinate system, to have constantly renewing conditions of interaction with another object.

The “goal” of the time structure is the uniqueness, novelty of all events in their location in space-time, and in their content.

The Universe is an ongoing birth of the new.

It is possible to consider the goal of the time structure in terms of the probability of interactions (events). Then such a goal is to be seen to be the consistent organization of an infinite array of non-repeating conditions for the creation and interaction of the forms – in other words, the creation of an array of prevailing probabilities of such events. And not any events, but only those determined by the time structure. Therefore, this probability array also possesses its structure, which is quantum in nature at a basic level.

If, at a certain scale of consideration, the tools of cognition no longer allow us to identify this structure, then it is customary to characterize the events that arise as spontaneous or accidental. However, this does not mean that such events do not have their cause. The spiral generations have no boundaries in scale.

Thus the goal of the time structure is achieved by providing the opportunity for an ongoing creation of equivalent conditions for the creation and interaction of forms at any point in space; as well as the conditions for ongoing, equivalent and non-repetitive changes, by rotation, in the orientation of the forms’ own systems of coordinates.

The following should also be noted.

It may seem that the structure of time is similar to a fractal. That's not so. A fractal is a static model that assumes the presence of an external observer. However, the real observer of the Universe is always inside, not outside. And the most important thing is that the structure of time is a dynamic structure.

It may also seem that when following the time line in the direction of the “source”, it is possible to determine the location of the center of the Universe. But that's not possible. The author leaves the reader the opportunity to try to imagine such a movement. And a brief explanation of why this is impossible is as follows: the spiral movement “towards the source” is a movement into the “past”, which no longer exists. This past is already different, because the spirals are in the state of dynamics. You can say otherwise – the Arrow has only one direction. From the point of view of the structure of time, it cannot be argued that there is no past and no future. The past and the future exist in dynamics. They are constantly changing.

Unlike the real things, the memories of the past and the assumptions about the future are models. And these models are static.

In connection with the above, the question arises – what is the present?

The present is not a moment. In the most general sense, it is a cycle of measurement (interaction) on a certain space-time scale. What is inside such a cycle is a change, or uncertainty. And in this sense that the present does not exist.

The problem of the “moment now” demonstrates the cause of many problems with physical models. All models are basically aimed at the sorts of absolute definitions. However, nothing absolute exists in the Universe. There is only a degree of approximation. Models differ from reality in one way or another in that they are unable to take into account the relativity and the variability; what makes the difference is that they contain the absolute boundaries.

Changing the attitudes towards the “present” is fundamentally important. For example, if we take the photon emission cycle as the present, then the speed of light really will not depend on its source.

In practice, the present should be understood as an array of events of a smaller scale relative to the scale of a certain dimension, or, otherwise, an array of events located inside the space-time volume of a certain cycle of measurement. And in this case, we neglect the causality between the events of such an array.

Which measurement cycle to consider as the present moment is the observer’s choice. The present is relative.

12.9 About multidimensionality.

To date, there are no physical signs of the presence of more than three spatial dimensions in the Universe. However, multidimensionality is accepted in some mathematical descriptions of the Universe. Therefore, it is interesting to address this issue in the light of the concept of this work, taking into account the alleged existence of the structure of the Universe.

12.9.1 The scale of observers and the structure of time.

Fig. 32 shows two observers with different spatial and temporal scales in the time structure. Observer 1 corresponds in scale to Spiral 1, Observer 2 corresponds to Spiral 2. Also, Spiral 1 shows two events corresponding in scale to Spiral 1.

Here, the different scales of observers should be interpreted as different space and time scales of cycles of interaction, cycles of measurement (cognition). And the cycle of measurement should be understood as the cycle of the complete rotation of the observers' coordinate system.

Fig.32

In this connection, the different-scale observers have different relation to different-scale events.

For Observer 1, events 1 and 2 are not available for interaction. They are in the past and the future relative to its cycle of existence.

Observer 2 has the opportunity to detect the causal relationship between events 1 and 2, and the opportunity to determine the regularity.

Observer 1 believes that he is moving in a straight line. Observer 2 believes that Observer 1 is moving in a spiral. Observer 2 is able to refine the law of motion of Observer 1 using an additional three dimensions of space. That is, the movement of Observer 1, from the point of view of Observer 2, can be described more accurately with the help of already six measurements. It is important to note that the metric of “basic” and “additional” measurements are different. In Spiral 1, the metric is “denser” than in Spiral 2. One can put it this way: for Observer 2, the main dimensions (of a smaller scale) determine the movement of Observer 1, and additional dimensions refine this movement.

If we assume the presence of another Observer 3 on an even larger spiral (on a spiral of the next generation), then this Observer 3 will find that the axis of Spiral 1, in turn, is also a spiral and that Observer 2 also moves in a spiral. And so on, with the increasing scale of observers and generations of spirals. Each subsequent observer can use yet more dimensions to describe the movement of Observer 1 more accurately.

Otherwise, it can be formulated as follows: taking into account additional dimensions is taking into account the rotation of the coordinate system of the observed object in an additional coordinate system.

For any Observer N, spirals of time have an unlimited number of levels both in the direction of increasing scales (events on these generations of spirals cannot be measured for Observer N) and in the direction of decreasing scales (events can be known by Observer N up to a certain limit).

On some of the smaller (relative to Spiral N) spiral generations – on Spiral N-k) – the measuring instruments of Observer N no longer correspond to the scale of the measured event (this event is too small in space-time). In this case, we can say that the N-k dimension is collapsed for Observer N. Of course, all dimensions of space-time scales smaller than N-k also turn out to be collapsed for this observer. And here it is important to clearly define what Observer N is in the given example. Here, an observer is simply a cycle of measurement on a certain scale, and the observer’s relations to other observers are relations of scales and the possibilities of taking into account additional dimensions relative to the same object or event.

For a better understanding of the structure of time, it is convenient to digress a little and consider an interesting question (Fig. 33): Can Observer 1 “catch up” with Observer 2 if he chooses some “shorter” path than that along the spiral of the time structure? This is a rather intricate question, and the most concise answer to it is to be as follows: the existence of a shortcut is a kind of illusion in this case. Indeed, in order to achieve his goal, Observer 1 must acquire an acceleration relative to its previous state and keep moving in a spiral. Strangely as it may seem, additional acceleration in this example is apparently the shortest way.

Fig.33

In relation to human cognition, the measurement cycle can be not only the property of a physical instrument of measurement. This can be a cycle of mental cognition. Because cognition and measurement are one and the same thing.

The ability to include and to use increasingly more dimensions by some observer brings him closer and closer to what is commonly called “free will". The limiting situation, when the number of dimensions that an observer is able to take into account tends to infinity, leads to a qualitative change in this observer. He is no longer inside the Universe, he is no longer a part, he is no longer an object. At the same time, having “infinite” free will, such an observer is not prone to chaos, since this will is directed along the Arrow. There are both freedom and will. The author reserves the reader’s right to interpret such an observer.

Thus the structure of time is a hierarchical multidimensional structure. This opens up the endless possibility of making ever more accurate measurements and creating ever more accurate models of what is happening.

12.9.2 Causality and the structure of time.

To date, there is no satisfactory understanding of what is a causal relationship. The only thing that can be said is that this relationship exists.

The concept of this work gives a possibility to define in the most general way the causal relationship as a change, or time; it has already been mentioned above in one form or another. However, the introduction of a non-material (formless) dynamic and multidimensional structure of time (Chapt. 12) allows us to consider the causal relationship, taking into account the presence of this structure.

The structure of time does not exist on its own, it is an inseparable part of what exists, i.e. a part of space-time. Creations, changes, and interactions of forms lead to disturbances in the structure (spirals) of time of the corresponding scales. Any disturbance (change) in the structure of time propagates through this structure.

The propagation of disturbances is the propagation of certain wave conditions for the formation of new forms, for changing the existing forms (for example, for changing the orientation of forms relative to the case where such a disturbance is absent). That is, some event in one space-time region leads to the occurrence of certain conditions for changing (interaction, detection) the form in another space-time region, leads to the formation of another event. Certain conditions should be interpreted as a certain probability of an event. The level of this probability is given by the degree of consistency of the wave parameters of the forms and the waves.

That is, some cause (event) gives rise – in the structure of time (in space-time) – to many regions with probabilities of occurrence of other – not arbitrary, but certain – events – consequences.

So, space-time consists of forms and of the dynamic structure of time, and perturbations in this structure lead to changes or creations of forms (to events).

The structure of time is the structure of causality.

Causality cannot be measured. It is waves or time. Only events (objects) or space are measurable. There is an immeasurable causal relationship between measurable events.

The causal nature of the Universe is the irreversible transitions of the perturbations of the structure of time into the changes in space and the transitions of the space changes into the perturbations of the structure of time. The dynamics of time generates (changes) matter, and matter changes the dynamics of time.

In fact, the perturbations of the time structure can be called the carriers of interactions.

And here it is important to note that the process of transition of perturbations of the time structure into events has its “driving force”. The structure of time tends to “get rid” of the disturbances. At all scales and in all areas, it strives to return to the most harmonious (symmetrical) state by means of transferring the energy of disturbances into the changes of forms and into the creation of forms. It can be said that the structure of time, as a wave entity, tends to the simplest spectrum (Arrow’s action).

The reason for this is the constant “flow” of wave energy from the source. This flow underscores the concepts of flow and direction of time. The spiral structure of time is in ongoing development. And this determines the development of the material world.

This approach is different than the idea of a physical vacuum that creates spontaneous events which have no causes. The rejection of causality stops cognition. Unlike the physical vacuum, the structure of time is subject to the law of evolution, and all events also acquire the source of evolution, or the causal basis, they become natural with some outstanding probability.

The continuous dynamic structure of causality is a continuous pattern. This is fundamentally important – because it allows us to imagine the Universe not just as some given existence, but as some kind of continuum that “calculates and creates”.

On the one hand, the consequence of some disturbance (event) can be “calculated”, thanks to the knowledge of the pattern. And this happens instantly (let's recall the phenomenon of “entanglement”).

On the other hand, it is possible to plan (calculate, assume) an event in some area of space-time by creating a certain disturbance “here and now". But then the physical formation of such a planned event occurs not instantly, but over a period of time.

In other words, the observer can use the structure of time (the patterns) as a tool for calculation and creation, being a part of this structure itself. At the same time, the possibilities of calculation and creation are limited only by the scales of dimensions and the tools in operation.

But is it possible to imagine the entire Universe as an observer-creator? One cannot imagine the universe as an object. However, it can be represented as a structurality being boundless in dimensions, dynamics and complexity: as a property. And the closest notion available to us for defining this property is consciousness.

Of course, the author does not claim that the Universe is consciousness, but such a representation of the Universe is in no way prohibited. And once the hypothesis of the structure of time is accepted, such a representation gets possible.

It is worth recalling once again that events here mean the prevailing probability of such events. Also, it is necessary to distinguish the fact of receiving information about where and when an event occurs from a real event, which is a cycle of change on the cognition instrument “here and now”. Information can be distributed (calculated) “instantly”, but real physical phenomena are still local.

Also, it should be remembered that any observer's ability to calculate (to obtain information) is realized only in relation to events of a smaller scale than the scale of his instrument of cognition, that is, when he “sees” their regular pattern (Fig. 32). Therefore, no observer can know the “plans for creation” of a larger scale observer, being unable to “participate in them” any consistently. This leads to the fundamental presence of a share of unpredictability in any events (to their probabilistic essence). At least for this reason, the Universe must be different from the computer. Another such reason, of course, is the relativity of the perception of reality by any of the observers. None of them has a scheme common to all observers, as well as a common program of the Universe. There is nothing identical in the Universe, neither in space nor in time.

12.10 About the action of physical laws.

This paragraph is final for a reason. The effect of laws on matter is still the subject of dispute among scientists and theologians, idealists and materialists. This question had divided humanity into two parts many centuries ago, from the very beginning of scientific knowledge. And to this day it has not been resolved.

Why do laws affect matter? How can matter “know” that it must obey the laws? The law is not matter, not energy, not force. Perhaps there is no more important question in human cognition than this one.

The concept of this work allows us to resolve this issue by reconciliation of the parties. It allows us to combine the ideal and the material.

The universe does not consist of parts.

The laws and the matter consist of the single essence: meaning.

Material particles and waves, the whole Universe consist only of the relations of space and time, of the relations of rest and motion. In other words, the Universe consists of the dynamics of the metric.

And the metric is just the meaning.

IN CONCLUSION

The author is grateful to everyone who created those wonderful books that the author was lucky enough to read.

The author is grateful to all people of science, whose achievements are truly amazing.

The concept presented in this paper is not a revision of the known quantitative laws. This is a description of the principles of the development of matter. Quantitative relations are always only concrete manifestations of principles in certain conditions. The investigation and the discovery of such relationships in isolation from the guiding principles can be interpreted in various ways. And different interpretations give rise to many paths of search. And these paths are equivalent as to the absence of a common criterion, in the absence of the reliance on common principles. This situation leads to a dispersion of the energy of the search. The purpose of this work is to identify the most promising direction among all possible directions.

Of course, there arise many different questions to all of the above presented.

Yet there is the most important one among them:

Is it possible to offer an alternative?

28.11.2023

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